What you'll learn
How people develop across the lifespan and how behavior is learned.
Development
- Piaget (cognitive stages): sensorimotor (object permanence), preoperational (egocentrism), concrete operational (conservation), formal operational (abstract thought).
- Erikson (psychosocial stages): e.g. trust vs mistrust, identity vs role confusion.
- Attachment (Ainsworth: secure, avoidant, anxious); Harlow's contact comfort.
- Nature and nurture interact throughout.
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
A neutral stimulus paired with an unconditioned stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus triggering a conditioned response. Acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination.
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Behavior shaped by consequences: reinforcement (positive = add pleasant; negative = remove aversive) increases behavior; punishment decreases it. Reinforcement schedules (fixed/variable, ratio/interval) affect response patterns; variable-ratio is most resistant to extinction.
Observational learning (Bandura)
Learning by watching models (Bobo doll). Vicarious reinforcement.
Exam tips
- Distinguish negative reinforcement (increases behavior) from punishment.
- Apply stages/conditioning to scenarios.
Common mistakes
- Equating 'negative reinforcement' with punishment.
- Mixing up classical (involuntary) and operant (voluntary) conditioning.