What you'll learn
This revision guide covers the essential concepts in social psychology and personality tested on the AP Psychology exam. You'll master how individuals think about and interact with others, exploring attribution, conformity, obedience, group processes, and the major theoretical approaches to personality. These topics appear regularly in both multiple-choice and free-response questions.
Key terms and definitions
Attribution — the process by which individuals explain the causes of behaviour and events, either dispositional (internal) or situational (external)
Conformity — changing one's behaviour or beliefs to match those of others due to real or imagined group pressure
Cognitive dissonance — psychological discomfort experienced when holding two contradictory beliefs, values, or attitudes simultaneously
Fundamental attribution error — the tendency to overemphasise dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors when explaining others' behaviour
Social facilitation — improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others
Deindividuation — loss of self-awareness and personal responsibility in group situations, often leading to behaviour inconsistent with personal values
Trait theory — approach to personality that identifies, describes, and measures individual differences in behavioural predispositions
Psychodynamic theory — perspective emphasising unconscious processes and unresolved childhood conflicts as determinants of personality and behaviour
Core concepts
Social cognition and attribution
Humans constantly interpret social situations and assign causes to behaviour. Fritz Heider pioneered attribution theory, distinguishing between internal (dispositional) and external (situational) attributions.
The fundamental attribution error describes our tendency to attribute others' actions to their character whilst overlooking situational pressures. For example, when a student fails an exam, observers might conclude they're lazy (dispositional) rather than considering they might work two jobs (situational). Interestingly, we make the opposite error for ourselves—the actor-observer bias—attributing our own failures to external circumstances.
Self-serving bias protects self-esteem: we credit success to our abilities but blame failure on external factors. A cricketer might attribute victory to skill but defeat to poor pitch conditions.
Cultural factors influence attribution patterns. Individualist cultures (USA, UK) show stronger fundamental attribution error than collectivist cultures (Japan, China), where situational factors receive greater consideration.
Attitudes and persuasion
Attitudes comprise cognitive (beliefs), affective (feelings), and behavioural components. They form through direct experience, social learning, and classical conditioning.
Leon Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory explains attitude change. When attitudes and behaviour conflict, psychological tension motivates us to restore consistency. In Festinger's classic study, participants paid $1 to lie about a boring task later rated it more enjoyable than those paid $20. The smaller payment created insufficient external justification, forcing internal attitude change to reduce dissonance.
The elaboration likelihood model identifies two persuasion routes:
- Central route: thoughtful consideration of argument quality; produces lasting attitude change in motivated, able audiences
- Peripheral route: reliance on superficial cues (speaker attractiveness, message length); produces temporary change in unmotivated or distracted audiences
Philip Zimbardo's foot-in-the-door technique demonstrates how small initial requests increase compliance with larger subsequent requests, as initial compliance creates attitude change toward seeing oneself as helpful.
Conformity and obedience
Solomon Asch's (1951) conformity experiments demonstrated that 75% of participants conformed to obviously incorrect group judgements at least once. Conformity increased with:
- Group size (up to 4-5 confederates)
- Unanimity (one dissenter reduced conformity dramatically)
- Public responses (private responses showed less conformity)
- Task difficulty and ambiguity
Asch identified two conformity types:
- Normative social influence: conforming to gain approval or avoid rejection
- Informational social influence: conforming because others seem to possess superior knowledge
Stanley Milgram's obedience studies (1963) revealed that 65% of participants delivered maximum 450-volt shocks to a confederate learner when instructed by an authority figure. Obedience factors included:
- Proximity of authority (obedience decreased when experimenter gave instructions by telephone)
- Legitimacy of authority figure
- Institutional context (obedience dropped when conducted outside Yale University)
- Personal responsibility (decreased when participant merely assisted rather than administered shocks)
Both studies raise crucial ethical considerations about deception, psychological harm, and informed consent that shaped modern research standards.
Group processes
Social facilitation occurs when others' presence enhances performance on simple tasks but impairs performance on complex ones. Robert Zajonc explained this through arousal: others' presence increases arousal, strengthening dominant (well-learned) responses whilst interfering with novel ones.
Social loafing describes reduced individual effort in group tasks when contributions aren't identifiable. Researchers documented this using rope-pulling experiments: individuals pulled harder alone than in groups. Loafing decreases when:
- Individual contributions are identifiable
- Tasks are meaningful or personally relevant
- Groups are cohesive
- Cultures emphasise collectivist values
Deindividuation in large groups or crowds produces diminished self-awareness and reduced concern about social evaluation. Philip Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrated how anonymity and role expectations can trigger extreme behaviour, though the study's methodology has faced substantial criticism.
Group polarisation describes how group discussion amplifies initial tendencies. If group members initially lean toward risk-taking, discussion produces riskier decisions. This results from exposure to persuasive arguments and social comparison processes.
Groupthink, identified by Irving Janis, occurs when desire for harmony overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives. Historical examples include the Bay of Pigs invasion. Symptoms include:
- Illusion of invulnerability
- Collective rationalisation
- Stereotyping out-groups
- Self-censorship
- Illusion of unanimity
Prejudice and discrimination
Prejudice (attitudes) and discrimination (behaviour) toward out-group members arise from multiple sources:
Social identity theory (Henri Tajfel) proposes that self-esteem derives partly from group membership. People categorise others into in-groups and out-groups, favouring in-groups to maintain positive social identity. Even arbitrary group assignments (minimal group paradigm) produce in-group bias.
Realistic conflict theory attributes prejudice to competition for limited resources. Muzafer Sherif's Robbers Cave study demonstrated how competition between groups created hostility, whilst superordinate goals requiring cooperation reduced prejudice.
Cognitive sources include:
- Stereotyping: overgeneralised beliefs about group members that simplify social perception
- Out-group homogeneity: perceiving out-group members as more similar than in-group members
- Confirmation bias: seeking information confirming existing stereotypes
The contact hypothesis suggests prejudice decreases through intergroup contact when conditions include equal status, common goals, institutional support, and opportunities for genuine acquaintance.
Personality theories
Psychodynamic approaches (Sigmund Freud) emphasise unconscious processes and childhood experiences. Personality structure comprises:
- Id: primitive, unconscious instincts seeking immediate gratification (pleasure principle)
- Ego: rational mediator between id and reality (reality principle)
- Superego: internalised moral standards and ideals
Defence mechanisms protect against anxiety by distorting reality:
- Repression: blocking threatening thoughts from consciousness
- Projection: attributing one's unacceptable impulses to others
- Reaction formation: adopting opposite attitudes to threatening impulses
- Sublimation: channelling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities
Psychodynamic approaches face criticism for unfalsifiability and overemphasis on sexuality, though they influenced psychology profoundly.
Humanistic approaches (Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow) emphasise self-actualisation and personal growth. Rogers proposed that congruence between self-concept and experience produces psychological health, whilst incongruence creates anxiety. Unconditional positive regard facilitates healthy development.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs places self-actualisation at the apex, achievable only after satisfying physiological, safety, belonging, and esteem needs.
Trait theories identify stable behavioural predispositions. The Five Factor Model (Big Five) dimensions are:
- Openness: imagination, creativity, intellectual curiosity
- Conscientiousness: organisation, dependability, self-discipline
- Extraversion: sociability, assertiveness, energetic approach to social world
- Agreeableness: cooperation, trust, compassion
- Neuroticism: emotional instability, anxiety, moodiness
Twin studies demonstrate substantial heritability for these traits (.40-.60), though environmental factors remain significant.
Social-cognitive approaches (Albert Bandura) emphasise reciprocal determinism: personality emerges from interactions between behaviour, cognitive processes, and environmental factors. Self-efficacy—beliefs about one's capabilities—influences goal selection and persistence. Locus of control (internal vs external) affects how individuals interpret events and respond to challenges.
Worked examples
Example 1: Free-response question on conformity
Question: A researcher conducts a study where participants judge line lengths in groups of eight. Seven members are confederates who unanimously give incorrect answers on 12 of 18 trials. Explain how normative and informational social influence might affect participant responses. (4 marks)
Model answer: Normative social influence occurs when participants conform to avoid social rejection or gain approval from the group (1 mark). They might give incorrect answers despite knowing the truth, fearing they'll appear foolish or face group disapproval for disagreeing (1 mark). Informational social influence occurs when participants assume the unanimous confederates possess superior knowledge (1 mark). This is particularly likely if the participant doubts their own perception or finds the task difficult, leading them to accept the group's judgment as correct information (1 mark).
Example 2: Multiple-choice application
Question: A student normally scores 85% on mathematics tests when working alone. When taking a test in a crowded examination hall, she scores 90%. This improvement best illustrates:
A) Social loafing
B) Deindividuation
C) Social facilitation
D) Group polarisation
E) Groupthink
Answer: C — Social facilitation explains improved performance on well-learned tasks (mathematics skills she's mastered) in the presence of others (crowded exam hall).
Example 3: Attribution scenario
Question: Marcus sees a driver run a red light. He thinks, "What a reckless person!" Later, Marcus runs a red light and thinks, "The light changed too quickly." Identify and explain the bias Marcus demonstrates. (3 marks)
Model answer: Marcus demonstrates the actor-observer bias (1 mark), making a dispositional attribution for the other driver's behaviour by attributing it to their character ("reckless person") (1 mark), whilst making a situational attribution for his own identical behaviour by blaming external circumstances ("light changed too quickly") (1 mark).
Common mistakes and how to avoid them
Confusing conformity and obedience: Conformity involves peer pressure from equals; obedience involves following direct commands from authority figures. Asch studied conformity; Milgram studied obedience.
Misapplying fundamental attribution error: This error applies to explaining others' behaviour, not our own. We overestimate dispositional factors for others whilst overestimating situational factors for ourselves (actor-observer bias).
Mixing up personality theories: Clearly distinguish psychodynamic (unconscious conflicts), humanistic (self-actualisation), trait (stable characteristics), and social-cognitive (situation-behaviour interactions) approaches. Each has distinct assumptions and methods.
Oversimplifying Milgram's findings: Don't just memorise "65% obeyed." Understand variations: obedience decreased with experimenter absence, increased proximity to learner, and non-institutional settings. Ethical implications matter too.
Neglecting cultural context: Attribution patterns, conformity rates, and personality expression vary across cultures. Individualist-collectivist distinctions frequently appear in exam questions.
Forgetting methodological details: Know study procedures, not just conclusions. The AP exam tests understanding of how findings were obtained and limitations of specific methods.
Exam technique for Social Psychology and Personality
Define before applying: When questions ask you to "explain" or "apply" concepts, briefly define the term first, then demonstrate understanding through application to the scenario. This ensures partial credit even if application is imperfect.
Use researcher names strategically: Citing specific researchers (Asch, Milgram, Bandura, Festinger) demonstrates depth of knowledge and often earns credit, but only when relevant. Don't force unnecessary name-dropping.
Address all components: Free-response questions often contain multiple parts. If asked about both causes and consequences, or to compare two theories, allocate time proportionally. Overlooking components loses marks.
Link traits to behaviour: When discussing personality, connect abstract traits to concrete behaviours. "High conscientiousness" means little without examples like "completes assignments early, maintains organised notes."
Quick revision summary
Social psychology examines how individuals think about and interact with others. Key processes include attribution (explaining behaviour causes), conformity (matching group behaviour), and obedience (following authority). Asch demonstrated conformity through line judgement tasks; Milgram revealed surprising obedience levels to authority. Group processes include social facilitation, social loafing, and groupthink. Prejudice stems from social identity, realistic conflict, and cognitive biases. Personality theories include psychodynamic (unconscious conflicts), humanistic (self-actualisation), trait (stable characteristics like the Big Five), and social-cognitive (reciprocal determinism) approaches. Each perspective offers distinct explanations for individual differences.