What you'll learn
Period 2 examines the establishment and development of European colonies in North America from 1607 to 1754. You'll analyze how different colonial regions developed distinct economic, social, and political systems shaped by geography, labor systems, and interactions with Native Americans. This period establishes foundational themes that persist throughout American history, including regional differences, slavery, representative government, and cultural exchange.
Key terms and definitions
Mercantilism — Economic theory holding that colonies exist to benefit the mother country by providing raw materials and markets for manufactured goods, enforced through trade restrictions and Navigation Acts.
Indentured servitude — Labor system where individuals contracted to work for 4-7 years in exchange for passage to America, room, and board; dominant labor source in Chesapeake colonies before 1680.
Middle Passage — The brutal transatlantic voyage enslaved Africans endured from West Africa to the Americas, characterized by horrific conditions that killed approximately 15% of captives.
Salutary neglect — British policy (1607-1763) of loosely enforcing mercantilist laws on American colonies, allowing colonial assemblies and economies to develop with relative autonomy.
Bacon's Rebellion (1676) — Virginia uprising led by Nathaniel Bacon against Governor Berkeley, sparked by frontier settlers' frustration over Indian policy and lack of representation; accelerated shift from indentured to enslaved African labor.
Great Awakening — Religious revival movement (1730s-1740s) emphasizing personal conversion and emotional religious experience, led by preachers like Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield; challenged established church authority.
Triangular Trade — Atlantic trade network connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas, exchanging manufactured goods, enslaved people, and raw materials like sugar, tobacco, and rum.
Pueblo Revolt (1680) — Successful uprising of Pueblo peoples against Spanish colonizers in New Mexico, temporarily expelling Spanish control and demonstrating Native American resistance to European colonization.
Core concepts
Colonial settlement patterns and regional development
The thirteen British colonies developed three distinct regional identities shaped by geography, climate, and economic opportunities.
New England colonies (Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hampshire):
- Founded primarily for religious purposes by Puritans seeking to create a "city upon a hill"
- Geography: rocky soil, harsh winters, abundant timber and harbors
- Economy: subsistence farming, fishing, shipbuilding, trade
- Society: town-centered communities, relatively egalitarian, high literacy rates, strong Puritan church influence
- Labor: family-based farming, no large plantations
Middle colonies (New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware):
- Founded for diverse reasons: proprietary grants (Pennsylvania), commercial ventures (New York)
- Geography: fertile soil, moderate climate, navigable rivers
- Economy: commercial agriculture ("breadbasket colonies"), grain exports, trade centers like Philadelphia
- Society: most ethnically and religiously diverse region, Quakers prominent in Pennsylvania
- Labor: mix of family farms and some indentured servants
Chesapeake colonies (Virginia, Maryland):
- Founded for economic profit (Virginia Company) and religious refuge for Catholics (Maryland)
- Geography: warm climate, long growing season, coastal waterways
- Economy: tobacco monoculture dominated, highly export-oriented
- Society: dispersed settlement patterns, sharp class divisions between planters and poor whites
- Labor: indentured servants (pre-1680), then enslaved Africans
Southern colonies (North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia):
- Founded for profit and strategic purposes (Georgia as buffer against Spanish Florida)
- Geography: subtropical climate, swampy lowlands ideal for rice cultivation
- Economy: rice and indigo in South Carolina; naval stores (tar, pitch) in North Carolina
- Society: South Carolina developed highest concentration of enslaved Africans (majority Black by 1730)
- Labor: enslaved Africans, particularly those from rice-growing regions of West Africa
Evolution of labor systems and slavery
Colonial labor systems evolved dramatically during Period 2, establishing patterns of racial slavery that defined American society.
Indentured servitude (1607-1680s):
- Dominant labor source in Chesapeake colonies during 17th century
- Workers received "freedom dues" (land, tools, clothes) upon completing contracts
- System declined after 1680 due to improving English economy, fewer willing immigrants, and concerns about armed, landless freedmen (Bacon's Rebellion)
Transition to racial slavery:
- Virginia and Maryland began systematic enslavement of Africans in 1660s-1680s
- Legal codification: Virginia laws (1662-1705) established hereditary, race-based slavery
- Economic factors: tobacco cultivation required large, permanent labor force; enslaved workers provided lifetime labor
- Social factors: racial distinctions prevented class solidarity between poor whites and enslaved Africans
Characteristics of colonial slavery:
- Chattel slavery: enslaved people defined as property with no legal rights
- Regional variations: gang labor on large plantations (South Carolina rice fields) vs. smaller holdings (Chesapeake)
- Task system: enslaved people in South Carolina rice cultivation completed assigned tasks, maintaining some autonomy
- African cultural retention: Gullah language and culture in Sea Islands; continuation of African naming practices, religious traditions, family structures
- Resistance: from work slowdowns to running away to armed rebellion (Stono Rebellion, 1739)
Colonial-Indian interactions and conflicts
Relationships between European colonists and Native Americans followed complex patterns of cooperation, competition, and conflict.
Early interactions (1607-1640s):
- Trade partnerships: Indians provided food, furs; Europeans offered metal tools, weapons
- Pocahontas and John Rolfe marriage (1614) symbolized temporary peace in Virginia
- Native Americans taught colonists crucial survival skills (corn cultivation, local geography)
- Metacom's War (King Philip's War, 1675-76): devastating conflict in New England that destroyed 12 English towns and killed thousands, ending Indian power in region
Impact of European colonization on Native Americans:
- Demographic catastrophe: European diseases (smallpox, measles) killed 80-95% of Native population
- Dispossession: steady encroachment on Indian lands through purchase, warfare, and treaty
- Economic dependence: Indians became reliant on European trade goods, particularly firearms and metal tools
- Cultural disruption: missionary activity, forced resettlement, destruction of traditional ways of life
Spanish colonial model (for comparison):
- Encomienda system: Spanish colonists received land grants and rights to Indian labor
- Mission system: Franciscan missions in Florida, New Mexico, California combined religious conversion with economic exploitation
- Pueblo Revolt (1680) demonstrated limits of Spanish control and native resistance capacity
- Casta system: elaborate racial hierarchy mixing Spanish, Indian, and African ancestry
French colonial relationships:
- Fur trade focus required Indian partnerships and cooperation
- Fewer French settlers meant less land pressure on Native communities
- Intermarriage common; métis (mixed) communities developed
- Military alliances: French allied with Huron, Algonquin against Iroquois Confederacy
Development of colonial political institutions
British colonies developed increasingly sophisticated political structures that fostered self-governance traditions.
Representative assemblies:
- Virginia House of Burgesses (1619): first elected assembly in English America
- By 1750, all colonies had elected assemblies controlling taxation and local affairs
- Assemblies gradually expanded power at expense of royal governors
- Voting restricted to property-owning white men (roughly 50-75% of white males could vote)
Political principles and practices:
- English common law and rights: trial by jury, habeas corpus, representative taxation
- Town meetings in New England provided direct democracy at local level
- Colonial charters established frameworks for government and defined colonists' rights
- Tension between royal authority (governors, customs officials) and colonial autonomy
Influential colonial political events:
- Mayflower Compact (1620): Pilgrims created self-governing framework
- Maryland Toleration Act (1649): granted religious freedom to Christians
- Zenger trial (1735): established precedent for freedom of press when printer John Peter Zenger acquitted of libel
Economic development and transatlantic trade
Colonial economies integrated into Atlantic commercial networks while developing regional specializations.
Mercantilism and Navigation Acts:
- Navigation Acts (1651-1696) required colonial trade use English ships, pass through English ports
- Enumerated goods (tobacco, sugar, indigo) could only be shipped to England
- Colonists evaded restrictions through smuggling, illegal trade with Dutch and French
- Salutary neglect allowed colonial economies to flourish despite restrictions
Colonial exports by region:
- New England: fish, whale oil, lumber, ships
- Middle colonies: wheat, flour, bread
- Chesapeake: tobacco (90% of Virginia/Maryland exports)
- Lower South: rice, indigo, naval stores
- Finished goods imported from Britain
Triangular Trade routes:
- New England rum to West Africa for enslaved people
- Enslaved Africans to West Indies for molasses
- Molasses to New England for rum production
- Variations connected colonial ports to Caribbean, Europe, and Africa
Religious and cultural developments
Colonial America witnessed significant religious diversity and important cultural movements.
Puritan New England:
- Congregational church structure: each congregation self-governing
- Theocracy: close integration of church and state (Massachusetts Bay Colony)
- Covenant theology: community covenant with God
- Dissenters banished: Roger Williams (Rhode Island), Anne Hutchinson
Religious diversity elsewhere:
- Maryland: Catholic haven, though Protestants soon dominated
- Pennsylvania: Quaker principles of religious tolerance attracted diverse groups
- Middle colonies: Dutch Reformed, Lutherans, Presbyterians, Baptists, Jews
- Religious tolerance increased over time due to practical necessity
The Great Awakening (1730s-1740s):
- Challenged established clergy, emphasized personal conversion and emotional experience
- Key figures: Jonathan Edwards ("Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God"), George Whitefield
- "New Lights" (supporters) vs. "Old Lights" (opponents)
- Democratizing effects: questioned authority, promoted individual spiritual equality
- Created institutional foundations: colleges founded (Princeton, Brown, Rutgers)
- Increased religious competition and denominational diversity
Cultural characteristics:
- High literacy rates in New England due to Puritan emphasis on Bible reading
- Lower literacy in southern colonies, especially among enslaved population
- Colonial newspapers emerged by 1730s
- Growing "American" identity distinct from British, though still culturally British
Worked examples
Example 1: Short Answer Question
Question: Briefly explain ONE important difference between the settlement patterns of New England and the Chesapeake colonies in the period 1607-1754.
Mark scheme expectation: 1 mark for identifying a valid difference with specific supporting evidence.
Model answer: New England colonies developed compact town settlements centered on churches and common lands, with families migrating together to establish close-knit communities focused on religious purposes. In contrast, Chesapeake colonies developed dispersed settlement patterns along rivers, with individual plantations scattered across the landscape because tobacco cultivation required large landholdings and the region's economic rather than religious orientation meant less emphasis on community cohesion.
Why this works: Identifies clear contrast (compact vs. dispersed), explains geographic/economic reasons, connects to broader purposes of colonization.
Example 2: Long Essay Question Planning
Question: Evaluate the extent to which labor systems in colonial British America changed in the period 1607-1754.
Planning approach (3 marks for thesis, 6 for evidence, 2 for analysis):
Thesis (state argument): While indentured servitude dominated early colonial labor, particularly in the Chesapeake, the period witnessed a fundamental transformation to race-based chattel slavery by 1700, though regional variations persisted with family labor remaining central in New England.
Change evidence:
- Shift from indentured servants (majority in Virginia 1650) to enslaved Africans (majority by 1700)
- Legal codification of racial slavery (Virginia Slave Codes 1660s-1705)
- Growth of slave trade: 20,000 enslaved Africans in 1700 to 250,000 by 1754
Continuity evidence:
- Family labor continued dominating New England throughout period
- Indentured servitude persisted in Middle colonies
- Apprenticeship systems remained important for skilled trades
Analysis: Changes primarily driven by economic incentives (permanent labor force), Bacon's Rebellion (elite fear of poor whites), and decreasing European immigration, but geographic and economic differences meant transformation occurred unevenly across regions.
Example 3: Document Analysis
Document excerpt: "The present state of New England is so deplorable...that the rising generation are not acquainted with the seals of the covenant...and the power of godliness is greatly decayed." — Synod of 1679
Question: Explain how this document relates to religious developments in colonial New England.
Model answer: This document reflects Puritan anxieties about declining religious fervor among second and third generations, a crisis that led to the Half-Way Covenant (1662) allowing partial church membership for children of members who hadn't experienced conversion. This concern about religious declension set the stage for the Great Awakening's revivalist emphasis on personal conversion experiences, as ministers like Jonathan Edwards sought to reinvigorate religious commitment through emotional preaching that challenged the formalistic religion described in this document.
Common mistakes and how to avoid them
Overgeneralizing about "the colonies": The thirteen colonies were dramatically different. Always specify which region or colony you're discussing. New England and South Carolina had virtually opposite social structures and economic systems.
Confusing chronology of labor systems: Don't claim slavery existed from 1607. Indentured servitude dominated the 17th century; systematic racial slavery developed primarily after 1660-1680, varying by region.
Neglecting Native American perspectives: Colonial history isn't just European settlement. Address how Indians shaped colonial development through trade, warfare, and resistance. Remember Metacom's War and Pueblo Revolt.
Treating salutary neglect as official policy: Salutary neglect was informal practice, not deliberate policy. It resulted from British preoccupation with European affairs and weak enforcement mechanisms, not intentional design.
Ignoring regional variations in slavery: South Carolina's rice plantations with African majorities differed vastly from Chesapeake tobacco farms. Task vs. gang labor systems created different enslaved experiences.
Misunderstanding mercantilism: Mercantilism was the system; Navigation Acts were specific laws enforcing it. Explain the relationship clearly rather than treating them as synonyms.
Exam technique for "Period 2: 1607–1754"
Address change AND continuity: Long essay questions about this period test your ability to analyze transformation over 150 years while recognizing what persisted. Structure responses to address both explicitly, using specific evidence from different decades (1610s, 1680s, 1740s).
Use comparative analysis: Questions often ask you to compare regions or colonies. Create explicit comparisons rather than describing one then the other. Use comparative language: "whereas," "in contrast," "similarly."
Deploy specific evidence: Avoid vague generalities. Name specific colonies, dates, laws, individuals, and statistics. "Labor systems changed" scores poorly; "Virginia's enslaved population grew from 300 in 1650 to 120,000 by 1750" demonstrates knowledge.
Connect to broader themes: Link Period 2 developments to AP themes (American and National Identity, Work/Exchange/Technology, Migration and Settlement). Show how colonial foundations shaped later American development without presentism.
Quick revision summary
Period 2 established foundations of British colonial America. Three distinct regions developed: New England (religious, town-based, family labor), Middle colonies (diverse, commercial grain production), and South (plantation agriculture, enslaved labor). Labor systems transformed from indentured servitude to race-based chattel slavery after 1680, particularly in Chesapeake and Carolina. Native Americans experienced demographic catastrophe and dispossession while shaping colonial development through trade and warfare. Colonists developed self-governing assemblies under salutary neglect, integrated into Atlantic mercantile economy, and experienced religious revivals during the Great Awakening, creating foundations for distinct American identity.