What you'll learn
This thematic study examines how migration has shaped Britain from Viking invasions to modern immigration. You'll explore patterns of movement into and out of Britain, the development and impact of the British Empire, and how diverse peoples have influenced British society. This content is examined through 16-mark and 4-mark questions focusing on change, continuity, and significance.
Key terms and definitions
Migration — The movement of people from one place to another, either within a country (internal) or between countries (external), which can be voluntary or forced.
Empire — A group of countries or territories controlled by one dominant power, typically for economic exploitation and strategic advantage.
Push factors — Negative conditions that force people to leave their homeland, such as war, persecution, poverty, or famine.
Pull factors — Positive attractions that draw migrants to a new location, such as employment opportunities, political freedom, or family connections.
Assimilation — The process by which migrant groups adopt the culture, language, and customs of their new country, sometimes losing aspects of their original identity.
Huguenots — French Protestant refugees who fled religious persecution in Catholic France, particularly after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685.
Windrush generation — Caribbean migrants who arrived in Britain between 1948 and 1971, named after the HMT Empire Windrush ship that brought the first large group in 1948.
Commonwealth — An association of countries, mostly former territories of the British Empire, which maintained connections with Britain after independence.
Core concepts
Early medieval migrations (c790-1066)
The period saw significant population movements that fundamentally altered British society and culture.
Viking invasions and settlement
- Danish Vikings raided Britain from 793, initially targeting monasteries like Lindisfarne
- By the 860s, Vikings controlled the Danelaw, approximately half of England
- Norse settlements in northern and eastern England introduced Scandinavian law, language, and place names
- Evidence includes over 600 place names ending in -by, -thorpe, and -thwaite
- Vikings integrated through trade, intermarriage, and eventual conversion to Christianity
Norman Conquest (1066)
- William of Normandy's invasion brought approximately 8,000 Norman soldiers and administrators
- Normans replaced Anglo-Saxon nobility, creating a French-speaking ruling class
- Introduction of feudalism reorganized English society hierarchically
- Norman French influenced English vocabulary, particularly in law, government, and cuisine
- Built castles and cathedrals that transformed the physical landscape
Medieval to early modern migration (1066-1700)
This period witnessed religious persecution driving migration and England's early imperial ventures.
Jewish communities
- Invited by William I to provide financial services forbidden to Christians
- Faced increasing persecution, including the York massacre of 1190
- Edward I expelled all Jews from England in 1290; not officially readmitted until 1656
Flemish weavers
- Skilled textile workers invited by Edward III in the 1330s
- Settled in East Anglia and the West Riding of Yorkshire
- Revolutionized English cloth production, making textiles England's primary export
- Integrated successfully, though faced some local resentment over economic competition
Huguenot refugees
- Approximately 50,000 fled France between 1670 and 1710
- Settled in London (Spitalfields), Canterbury, and other urban centres
- Brought skills in silk weaving, clock making, and silver smithing
- Generally welcomed due to Protestant identity and valuable economic contributions
- Established French-speaking churches that survived into the 19th century
The British Empire and migration (1700-1900)
Britain's imperial expansion created unprecedented migration flows in multiple directions.
Building the Empire
- British control expanded through conquest, trade monopolies, and settlement
- East India Company established British dominance in India by 1857
- Thirteen American colonies gained until loss in 1783
- Canada, Australia, New Zealand became settler colonies
- Caribbean islands provided sugar wealth through plantation slavery
Transatlantic slave trade
- Britain transported approximately 3.1 million enslaved Africans between 1640 and 1807
- Triangular trade connected British manufactured goods, enslaved people, and colonial produce
- Slavery abolished in British Empire in 1833, though apprenticeship continued until 1838
- Generated enormous wealth that funded industrial development
- Legacy of racism and inequality persisted long after abolition
Irish migration
- Irish people migrated to Britain throughout the period, accelerating during the Great Famine (1845-1852)
- Approximately 1 million Irish people came to Britain between 1841 and 1861
- Settled in industrial cities like Liverpool, Manchester, Glasgow, and London
- Faced discrimination due to poverty, Catholicism, and competition for employment
- Irish labor built canals, railways, and worked in textile factories
Indian migration to Britain
- Small but significant numbers arrived as servants, sailors (lascars), and students
- Sake Dean Mahomet opened Britain's first curry house in London in 1810
- Indian ayahs (nannies) accompanied British families returning from India
- Most faced racial discrimination and limited opportunities
Empire and migration (1900-1948)
The World Wars and imperial changes transformed migration patterns and British attitudes.
World War I impact
- Over 1.4 million Indian soldiers and laborers served the British Empire
- Caribbean volunteers joined British regiments
- Chinese laborers recruited for Western Front support roles
- Created expectation of greater rights and recognition post-war
Interwar period
- Small settled communities of Caribbean, African, and Asian origin in port cities
- Experienced housing discrimination, employment barriers, and racial violence
- 1919 race riots targeted Black and Asian communities in Liverpool, Cardiff, and other ports
- Alien Orders Act (1920) and Special Restriction Act (1925) limited immigration
World War II
- Caribbean volunteers joined RAF and other services
- Polish refugees (approximately 200,000) arrived, many through armed forces
- European Volunteer Workers scheme recruited displaced persons after 1945
- War highlighted imperial contribution and challenged racial hierarchies
Post-war migration (1948-1971)
Labour shortages and imperial connections drove significant migration from the Commonwealth.
Windrush and Caribbean migration
- British Nationality Act (1948) granted all Commonwealth citizens British citizenship
- HMS Empire Windrush arrived June 1948 with 492 Caribbean passengers
- Approximately 300,000 Caribbean migrants arrived by 1971
- Recruited for NHS, transport, and manufacturing sectors
- Faced housing discrimination ("No Irish, No Blacks, No Dogs" signs) and workplace racism
- Notting Hill riots (1958) exposed racial tensions
South Asian migration
- Indians, Pakistanis, and Bangladeshis arrived for industrial employment
- Approximately 250,000 South Asians in Britain by 1971
- Concentrated in textile towns (Bradford, Leicester) and industrial cities
- Often worked unsociable shifts in foundries, textile mills, and factories
- Faced similar discrimination to Caribbean migrants
East African Asian migration
- Ugandan Asian refugees (approximately 30,000) expelled by Idi Amin in 1972
- Kenyan Asians arrived after Africanization policies
- Often better educated and financially established than earlier migrants
- Significant contributions to retail and business sectors
Recent migration (1971-present)
Immigration became increasingly politicized while Britain's ethnic composition diversified.
Legislative changes
- Commonwealth Immigrants Act (1968) restricted entry to those with British-born parents/grandparents
- Immigration Act (1971) distinguished between patrials and non-patrials
- Race Relations Acts (1965, 1968, 1976) outlawed discrimination
- European Union membership (1973-2020) allowed free movement with EU countries
Refugee movements
- Vietnamese boat people (1970s-80s)
- Somali refugees (1990s-2000s) fleeing civil war
- Syrian refugees (2015 onwards) through resettlement schemes
- Afghan refugees following Taliban takeover (2021)
Eastern European migration
- EU expansion (2004) brought migrants from Poland, Lithuania, and other accession countries
- Approximately 1 million Polish people in UK by 2016
- Filled labor gaps in agriculture, construction, hospitality, and healthcare
- Brexit referendum (2016) partly driven by immigration concerns
Contemporary issues
- Windrush scandal (2018) exposed wrongful deportations and denial of rights
- Points-based immigration system introduced post-Brexit (2021)
- Ongoing debates about asylum seekers, illegal immigration, and integration
- Growing recognition of Britain as a multicultural society
Worked examples
Example 1: Explain one way in which migration to Britain was similar in the medieval period and the 20th century. (4 marks)
Model answer: One similarity was that migrants faced hostility from existing populations in both periods. In medieval times, Jewish communities experienced persecution including the York massacre of 1190, partly due to economic resentment over money-lending. Similarly, in the 20th century, Caribbean migrants faced discrimination including the 1958 Notting Hill riots, with hostility driven by competition for housing and employment. In both cases, economic factors and cultural differences fueled opposition to newcomers.
Mark scheme guidance:
- Identify a valid similarity (1 mark)
- Support with accurate medieval detail (1 mark)
- Support with accurate 20th century detail (1 mark)
- Explain the similarity effectively (1 mark)
Example 2: 'Economic factors were the main reason for migration to Britain in the period c790 to the present day.' How far do you agree? Explain your answer. (16 marks + 4 SPaG)
Model answer structure:
Introduction: Economic factors have consistently been significant push and pull factors throughout British migration history, though religious, political, and imperial factors have also played crucial roles in different periods.
Paragraph 1 - Economic factors supporting: Economic opportunities attracted many migrant groups. Flemish weavers arrived in the 1330s specifically invited for their textile skills, transforming English cloth production. Irish migration accelerated during the Great Famine when economic devastation pushed people to seek work in British industrial cities. Post-1948, Caribbean and South Asian migrants responded to active recruitment by British industries facing labor shortages, particularly in the NHS and manufacturing sectors. Throughout the period, employment opportunities acted as powerful pull factors.
Paragraph 2 - Economic factors supporting continued: Economic push factors also drove migration. The transatlantic slave trade forcibly moved millions for economic exploitation. More recently, Eastern European migration after 2004 EU expansion was largely economically motivated, with workers seeking higher wages than available in their home countries. Even Viking settlement involved economic motivations alongside raiding, as Scandinavians sought agricultural land.
Paragraph 3 - Alternative factor - Religious persecution: However, religious factors were sometimes more significant than economic ones. Huguenots fled France after 1685 purely due to religious persecution following the Edict of Nantes' revocation, not economic hardship. Many were prosperous in France but chose exile over conversion. Jewish expulsion in 1290 was religiously motivated, as was their earlier invitation for economic purposes. For these groups, religion overrode economic considerations.
Paragraph 4 - Alternative factor - Imperial connections: Imperial relationships created migration patterns independent of pure economics. The British Nationality Act (1948) granted Commonwealth citizens citizenship rights based on imperial history, not economic need. Ugandan Asian refugees (1972) came due to political expulsion, not economic pull factors in Britain. Post-war Polish settlement resulted from wartime alliances and displacement rather than economic calculation.
Conclusion: While economic factors remained consistently important throughout the period, their relative significance varied. In some cases, like Flemish weavers or post-war Commonwealth migration, economics dominated. However, religious persecution (Huguenots), imperial legacy (Windrush generation), and political factors (refugees) were sometimes paramount. Economic factors were a main reason but not the sole or always dominant explanation for migration patterns across this extensive timeframe.
Mark scheme guidance:
- Complex judgment, not one-sided (up to 4 marks for argument)
- Detailed, accurate supporting knowledge (up to 8 marks)
- Analysis throughout, explaining significance (up to 4 marks)
- SPaG marks for spelling, punctuation, grammar, and specialist terminology (4 marks)
Common mistakes and how to avoid them
Confusing chronology: Students often misdate migration groups. Remember Huguenots arrived 1680s-1710s, Irish Famine migration 1840s-1860s, Windrush generation 1948-1971. Create a timeline to visualize the sequence.
Oversimplifying experiences: Avoid statements like "all migrants faced discrimination." While common, experiences varied by period, location, skill level, and religion. Flemish weavers integrated more easily than Irish Catholics; Huguenots were welcomed while Jews faced expulsion.
Neglecting empire's role: Many students underestimate how empire shaped migration. The slave trade, Commonwealth citizenship, and post-colonial movement were all imperial consequences. Always consider imperial context when discussing migration after 1600.
Weak comparison answers: For 4-mark comparison questions, students often identify a similarity or difference but fail to develop both time periods equally. Always provide specific evidence for each period mentioned in the question.
Narrative rather than analysis: Telling the story of what happened earns few marks. Focus on explaining why events occurred, what their significance was, and how they connect to the question. Use words like "because," "therefore," "this demonstrates," and "consequently."
Ignoring the question's time period: If a question asks about c1700-1900, don't include extensive detail about Windrush. Stay within the specified chronological boundaries while using precise examples from that period.
Exam technique for "Britain: Migration, Empires and the People, c790 to the Present Day"
Master command words: "Explain" requires reasons and analysis (not just description). "How far do you agree" needs a balanced argument considering multiple perspectives. "Describe" wants factual detail about what happened. Always underline the command word before planning.
4-mark questions demand specific structure: Identify the similarity/difference clearly, then provide precise supporting detail from each time period mentioned. Two developed periods score higher than three superficial ones. Spend approximately 5-6 minutes on these questions.
16-mark essays require sustained argument: Plan for 2-3 minutes, identifying 3-4 main points. Each paragraph should include: a clear point, specific factual evidence, and analysis linking back to the question. Write a brief introduction and conclusion. Allocate 20-25 minutes including planning.
Use historical terminology precisely: Demonstrate knowledge by using terms like "pull factors," "assimilation," "Commonwealth," "Danelaw," and specific legislation names. This contributes to SPaG marks on 16-mark questions and shows examiner-friendly understanding throughout.
Quick revision summary
Migration to Britain from c790 to present involved Vikings, Normans, Jews, Flemish weavers, Huguenots, Irish, enslaved Africans, and post-war Commonwealth citizens from the Caribbean and South Asia. The British Empire created migration flows in multiple directions, including the slave trade and later Commonwealth movement. Economic opportunities, religious persecution, imperial connections, and political upheaval all drove migration at different times. Migrants faced varying reception from welcome to violent discrimination, but all contributed significantly to British economic, cultural, and social development across the centuries.