What you'll learn
This revision guide covers the origins and development of the Cold War from 1945 to 1972, focusing on superpower rivalry between the USA and USSR. You'll examine how wartime allies became bitter enemies, explore key flashpoints including Berlin and Cuba, and understand how tensions evolved through periods of crisis and cooperation. This content directly aligns with the AQA GCSE History specification for Paper 1, Section B.
Key terms and definitions
Cold War — A state of political and military tension between the USA and USSR (and their allies) from 1945-1991, characterised by ideological conflict, arms races and proxy wars, but avoiding direct military confrontation between the superpowers.
Capitalism — An economic and political system based on private ownership, free markets, democracy and individual freedoms; the ideology of the USA and Western nations during the Cold War.
Communism — An economic and political system based on state ownership of property, centrally planned economies, one-party rule and collective equality; the ideology of the USSR and Eastern Bloc nations.
Iron Curtain — The political, military and ideological barrier separating Soviet-controlled Eastern Europe from Western Europe after 1945; term popularised by Winston Churchill in his March 1946 speech.
Containment — US foreign policy strategy developed by George Kennan in 1947 aimed at preventing the spread of communism to new countries without using direct military action against the USSR.
Satellite states — Eastern European countries (Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, East Germany) controlled by the Soviet Union after World War Two, forced to adopt communist governments and follow Soviet policies.
Détente — A period of improved relations and reduced tensions between the USA and USSR during the late 1960s and early 1970s, characterised by diplomatic negotiations and arms limitation agreements.
Proxy war — A conflict where the superpowers supported opposing sides with money, weapons and military advisers rather than fighting each other directly; examples include Korea and Vietnam.
Core concepts
Origins of the Cold War 1945-1947
The Grand Alliance between the USA, USSR and Britain during World War Two collapsed rapidly after 1945 due to fundamental ideological differences and mutual suspicion.
Key conferences:
Yalta (February 1945): Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin agreed on post-war Europe. Germany would be divided into four occupation zones. Stalin promised free elections in Eastern Europe and to join the war against Japan. Tensions emerged over Poland's future government.
Potsdam (July-August 1945): New leaders Truman and Attlee took harder stances. Germany would pay reparations and be demilitarised. Disagreements intensified over Poland, reparations and Soviet control of Eastern Europe. Truman informed Stalin about the atomic bomb, increasing Soviet insecurity.
Growing tensions 1945-1947:
Soviet expansion into Eastern Europe violated Yalta agreements. Communist governments were installed in Poland, Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary through rigged elections and intimidation.
The Long Telegram (February 1946) from George Kennan warned that the USSR was ideologically committed to destroying capitalism and would only respond to force.
Churchill's Iron Curtain speech (March 1946) publicly declared that Europe was divided, alarming Stalin who saw it as a call for Western confrontation.
The Truman Doctrine (March 1947) committed the USA to supporting countries resisting communism. Truman provided $400 million to Greece and Turkey to prevent communist takeover.
The Marshall Plan (June 1947) offered $12.7 billion in economic aid to rebuild Western Europe. Stalin forced Eastern European countries to reject this aid, seeing it as economic imperialism designed to spread American influence.
The Berlin Crisis 1948-1949
Berlin became the first major Cold War flashpoint, demonstrating how close the superpowers came to military conflict.
Background:
Germany and Berlin were divided into four zones (American, British, French, Soviet). Berlin sat deep inside the Soviet zone, creating a vulnerable Western outpost in communist territory.
The crisis unfolds:
In June 1948, Britain, France and the USA merged their zones and introduced a new currency (the Deutschmark) to stabilise West Germany's economy. Stalin viewed this as a violation of Potsdam agreements and a step toward creating a separate West German state.
Stalin responded by blocking all road, rail and canal routes into West Berlin (the Berlin Blockade), attempting to force the Western powers out through starvation.
The Berlin Airlift:
Rather than using force, which risked war, the USA and Britain supplied West Berlin entirely by air. From June 1948 to May 1949, aircraft landed every 90 seconds, delivering 8,000 tons of supplies daily—food, fuel and medicine for 2 million people.
Consequences:
Stalin lifted the blockade in May 1949, having failed to force the West out. The airlift was a significant propaganda victory for the West, demonstrating commitment to protecting freedom.
Germany formally divided into the Federal Republic of Germany (West) in May 1949 and the German Democratic Republic (East) in October 1949.
The crisis accelerated Western military cooperation, leading to the formation of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) in April 1949—a military alliance committing members to mutual defence.
The USSR established the Warsaw Pact in 1955 as a communist counterpart to NATO, formalising the division of Europe into two armed camps.
The Hungarian Uprising 1956
Hungary demonstrated the limits of both Soviet control and Western willingness to intervene in Eastern Europe.
Causes:
Hungarians resented Soviet control, forced collectivisation of agriculture, secret police oppression and poor living standards.
After Stalin's death in 1953, new Soviet leader Khrushchev criticised Stalin's brutality in his 1956 "Secret Speech," encouraging reformers across Eastern Europe.
In October 1956, student protests in Budapest demanded reform. The Soviet Union initially allowed reformist Imre Nagy to become Prime Minister.
The uprising:
Nagy introduced dramatic reforms: announced Hungary would leave the Warsaw Pact, hold free elections, allow other political parties and become neutral. This went far beyond what Khrushchev could tolerate.
On 4 November 1956, 200,000 Soviet troops and 6,000 tanks invaded Hungary. Street fighting killed approximately 3,000 Hungarians. Nagy was arrested and later executed. A pro-Soviet government under János Kádár was installed.
Consequences:
Demonstrated the USSR would use overwhelming force to maintain control of satellite states.
Exposed the limitations of US "rollback" rhetoric. Despite Radio Free Europe encouraging resistance, the USA provided no military support, recognising that intervention risked nuclear war.
Showed the doctrine of containment applied only to preventing communist expansion, not reversing existing Soviet control.
The Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
The closest the Cold War came to nuclear war occurred over Soviet missiles in Cuba, 90 miles from the USA.
Background:
Cuba's communist leader Fidel Castro overthrew the US-backed Batista regime in 1959. The USA imposed economic sanctions and supported the failed Bay of Pigs invasion (April 1961) by Cuban exiles.
Soviet leader Khrushchev decided to place nuclear missiles in Cuba to defend Castro, reduce Soviet strategic inferiority, and gain bargaining leverage over Western missiles in Turkey.
Thirteen days in October 1962:
14 October: American U-2 spy planes photographed Soviet missile sites under construction in Cuba.
22 October: President Kennedy announced a naval "quarantine" (blockade) to prevent further Soviet shipments and demanded missile removal.
24-25 October: Soviet ships approached the blockade but turned back at the last moment—"We're eyeball to eyeball, and I think the other fellow just blinked."
27 October: Tensions peaked when a U-2 was shot down over Cuba, killing the pilot. Kennedy's military advisers urged immediate invasion.
Resolution:
Kennedy and Khrushchev negotiated through secret communications. The USSR agreed to remove missiles from Cuba in return for American promises not to invade Cuba and to secretly remove US missiles from Turkey.
By 28 October, Khrushchev publicly agreed to withdraw the missiles.
Consequences:
Both leaders recognised how close they had come to nuclear war, prompting steps to manage future crises.
The Washington-Moscow hotline was established in 1963 for direct communication.
The Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963) banned atmospheric nuclear testing.
Khrushchev was removed from power in 1964, partly for the humiliation of backing down.
The Vietnam War and superpower involvement
Vietnam became the longest and most divisive proxy war, demonstrating the limits of American military power.
Background:
Vietnam was divided at the 17th parallel in 1954 after French withdrawal. Communist North Vietnam (under Ho Chi Minh) opposed the American-backed South Vietnamese government.
The USA feared the domino theory—if Vietnam fell to communism, neighbouring countries would follow.
Escalation:
President Kennedy sent 16,000 military "advisers" by 1963.
The Gulf of Tonkin incident (August 1964) gave President Johnson congressional approval to escalate involvement.
By 1968, 540,000 US troops fought in Vietnam alongside South Vietnamese forces.
The USA used massive bombing campaigns (Operation Rolling Thunder) and chemical weapons (Agent Orange, napalm).
Communist support:
The USSR and China provided North Vietnam with weapons, equipment and financial aid, but avoided direct military involvement.
The Vietcong guerrilla fighters in South Vietnam received supplies via the Ho Chi Minh Trail.
Turning point:
The Tet Offensive (January 1968) saw coordinated Vietcong attacks on over 100 South Vietnamese cities. Though militarily defeated, it shocked American public opinion, undermining government claims of progress.
Withdrawal:
President Nixon pursued "Vietnamisation"—training South Vietnamese forces while withdrawing American troops.
The Paris Peace Accords (January 1973) ended direct US involvement. North Vietnam conquered South Vietnam in 1975.
Consequences:
First major US military defeat, damaging American prestige and confidence.
Demonstrated limits of military power against determined guerrilla resistance with superpower backing.
Cost 58,000 American lives and over 3 million Vietnamese lives.
Détente 1969-1972
By the late 1960s, both superpowers sought to reduce tensions and control the spiralling costs of the arms race.
Reasons for détente:
Economic pressures: Both nations spent enormous sums on nuclear weapons and conventional forces.
Nuclear parity: The USSR had achieved rough equality in nuclear weapons, making further competition less productive.
China: The Sino-Soviet split meant both superpowers viewed China as a potential threat, encouraging US-Soviet cooperation.
Vietnam: The war drained American resources and divided American society.
Key developments:
SALT I (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks, 1972) limited the number of anti-ballistic missile systems and froze the number of intercontinental ballistic missiles for five years.
Nixon's visit to China (1972) exploited Sino-Soviet rivalry, giving the USA leverage over the USSR.
Basic Principles Agreement (1972) committed both nations to peaceful coexistence and regular consultations.
Limitations:
Détente represented practical cooperation on specific issues rather than fundamental ideological reconciliation. Many in both countries viewed it with suspicion, and tensions would increase again in the late 1970s.
Worked examples
Example 1: 4-mark consequence question
Question: Describe two consequences of the Berlin Blockade 1948-1949. (4 marks)
Model answer:
One consequence was the creation of NATO in April 1949. The Berlin Crisis demonstrated that Western European countries needed a formal military alliance to resist Soviet aggression, leading twelve nations including the USA, Britain and France to sign the North Atlantic Treaty committing to mutual defence.
Another consequence was the permanent division of Germany. The crisis hardened attitudes on both sides, making cooperation impossible. In May 1949, the Western zones became the Federal Republic of Germany, and in October 1949 the Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic, formalising Germany's partition for over forty years.
Examiner comment: Each consequence is clearly identified, explained and developed with specific factual detail. The answer uses precise dates and shows clear understanding of causation.
Example 2: 12-mark source evaluation question
Question: Study Source A. How useful is Source A to a historian studying the Cuban Missile Crisis? Explain your answer using Source A and your contextual knowledge. (12 marks)
Source A: Extract from President Kennedy's television address, 22 October 1962: "This secret, swift and extraordinary build-up of Communist missiles in an area well known to have a special relationship with the United States cannot be accepted by this country if our courage and our commitments are ever to be trusted again."
Model answer structure:
Content: Source A is useful because it shows Kennedy's public justification for the blockade, emphasising Soviet secrecy and the threat to American credibility. It reveals the domestic political pressure Kennedy faced to respond firmly.
Provenance: The source is useful because it's Kennedy's public address, showing how he presented the crisis to Americans and the world. As a presidential speech, it had significant impact on public opinion. However, it's limited because it doesn't reveal the private negotiations happening simultaneously through back channels.
Contextual knowledge: The source is useful when combined with knowledge that Kennedy rejected military invasion despite pressure from advisers, choosing the "quarantine" to allow Khrushchev room for compromise. Knowledge of the secret agreement to remove Turkish missiles shows the source presents only the public position, not the full diplomatic reality.
Conclusion: Overall, the source is useful for understanding Kennedy's public stance and the intense pressure he faced, but must be supplemented with other evidence about the secret negotiations to give a complete picture of the crisis resolution.
Example 3: 16-mark essay question
Question: "The main reason for increased tension between East and West in the years 1947-1949 was disagreement over Germany." How far do you agree with this statement? (16 marks + 4 SPaG)
Model approach:
Introduction: State your argument—while Germany was a major factor, tensions increased due to multiple interconnected causes including ideological conflict, Eastern European expansion and economic competition.
Paragraph 1 (Agreement): Germany was indeed central—the Berlin Blockade brought superpowers closest to war since 1945. The dispute over currency reform, reparations and political future created direct confrontation. Division into FRG and GDR symbolised Cold War partition.
Paragraph 2 (Counter-argument): However, Soviet expansion across Eastern Europe 1945-1948 preceded the Berlin Crisis. Stalin's installation of communist governments in Poland, Hungary, Romania and Czechoslovakia (especially the 1948 coup) violated Yalta agreements and drove Western responses.
Paragraph 3 (Alternative factor): Economic rivalry through Marshall Plan increased tensions significantly. The $12.7 billion aid programme threatened Soviet influence in Eastern Europe. Stalin's creation of Cominform (1947) and Comecon (1949) represented direct responses to Western economic initiatives.
Conclusion: While Germany became the focal point of Cold War division by 1949, increased tensions resulted from broader patterns of Soviet expansion, economic competition and ideological incompatibility, with Germany serving as the most visible battleground rather than the sole cause.
Common mistakes and how to avoid them
Confusing dates and events: Students often mix up the Berlin Blockade (1948-1949) with the Berlin Wall (1961). Create a timeline to visualise the sequence of events and their relationships.
Lacking specific supporting evidence: Writing "tensions increased" without explaining why or providing examples. Always support general statements with precise dates, names, statistics or quotes.
Oversimplifying causation: Attributing events to a single cause when multiple factors contributed. Use phrases like "another important factor was..." and "this combined with..." to demonstrate sophisticated analysis.
Ignoring provenance in source questions: Analysing what a source says without considering who wrote it, when, why and for whom. Always evaluate the author's perspective, purpose and the source's limitations.
One-sided essays: Agreeing completely with a statement without considering alternative viewpoints. Strong essays acknowledge different perspectives before reaching a balanced judgement.
Narrative instead of analysis: Telling the story of what happened rather than explaining causes, consequences or significance. Answer the specific question asked, using narrative detail as supporting evidence for analytical points.
Exam technique for "Conflict and Tension Between East and West, 1945–1972"
Command words matter: "Describe" requires factual detail without explanation. "Explain" needs causation (because/therefore/as a result). "How far do you agree" demands balanced evaluation with a clear judgement.
Source questions require both content and provenance: For 12-mark utility questions, examine what the source says, who created it and why, and compare it with your contextual knowledge. Avoid simply paraphrasing—evaluate usefulness for the specific enquiry stated.
Essay structure for 16-mark questions: Write 4-5 analytical paragraphs addressing different factors or perspectives. Begin each paragraph with a clear point, support with specific evidence, and explain the significance. Your introduction and conclusion should present a clear, sustained argument.
Time management: Allocate approximately 20 minutes for 12-mark questions and 25 minutes for 16-mark essays. Leave 5 minutes to check spelling, punctuation and grammar (worth 4 additional marks on essays).
Quick revision summary
The Cold War emerged from wartime alliance collapse, driven by incompatible ideologies and mutual suspicion. Stalin's expansion into Eastern Europe prompted US containment through the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan. Berlin became the first flashpoint, with the 1948-1949 blockade and airlift demonstrating superpower resolve without war. Hungary (1956) and Cuba (1962) marked dangerous confrontations, with Cuba nearly triggering nuclear war before encouraging crisis management mechanisms. Vietnam demonstrated proxy war limits despite massive US commitment. By 1972, détente reflected recognition of nuclear parity and economic costs, producing arms limitation agreements whilst fundamental tensions remained.