What you'll learn
This revision guide covers the AQA GCSE History module on Conflict and Tension in the Gulf and Afghanistan, 1990–2009. You'll examine the causes, events and consequences of two major conflicts: the First Gulf War (1990–91) and the invasions of Afghanistan (2001) and Iraq (2003). These conflicts shaped international relations and continue to influence global politics today.
Key terms and definitions
Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) — nuclear, chemical or biological weapons capable of causing widespread death and destruction; the claimed possession of WMD by Iraq was used to justify the 2003 invasion
Taliban — an Islamic fundamentalist political movement that ruled Afghanistan from 1996 to 2001, providing sanctuary to al-Qaeda and imposing strict Sharia law
Coalition forces — military alliances formed by multiple nations working together, notably the US-led coalitions in the Gulf War (1991), Afghanistan (2001) and Iraq (2003)
UN Security Council Resolution — formal decisions made by the UN Security Council that are binding on all member states; Resolution 678 authorised force against Iraq in 1990
No-fly zones — areas where Iraqi aircraft were banned from flying after 1991, enforced by US and UK forces to protect Kurdish and Shia populations from Saddam Hussein's regime
Regime change — the removal of a government and its replacement with another; this became US policy toward Iraq by the late 1990s
Al-Qaeda — the terrorist organisation led by Osama bin Laden responsible for the 9/11 attacks and other strikes against Western targets
Gulf War Syndrome — controversial medical condition reported by veterans of the 1991 Gulf War, with symptoms including fatigue, muscle pain and cognitive difficulties
Core concepts
Background to the First Gulf War 1990–91
Iraq emerged from its eight-year war with Iran (1980–88) economically devastated and heavily in debt, owing approximately $80 billion. President Saddam Hussein blamed Kuwait for Iraq's economic problems, accusing the emirate of:
- Stealing Iraqi oil by slant-drilling across the border
- Overproducing oil, which drove down prices and reduced Iraq's revenue
- Refusing to cancel Iraqi war debts
Historical tensions fuelled Iraqi resentment. Iraq had long claimed Kuwait as its "19th province," arguing that British imperial cartography in the 1920s had illegally separated Kuwait from Iraq. By July 1990, Saddam massed 100,000 troops on the Kuwaiti border.
On 2 August 1990, Iraqi forces invaded Kuwait. The conquest took less than two days, with the Kuwaiti royal family fleeing to Saudi Arabia. Saddam installed a puppet government before annexing Kuwait entirely on 8 August 1990.
International response:
The invasion alarmed the international community, particularly because it threatened Saudi Arabia's oil fields. The UN Security Council immediately passed Resolution 660 condemning the invasion and demanding immediate withdrawal. When Iraq refused, the UN imposed comprehensive economic sanctions through Resolution 661.
US President George H.W. Bush assembled a broad coalition forces of 34 nations, including Arab states like Egypt and Syria. This coalition positioned over 500,000 troops in Saudi Arabia during Operation Desert Shield (August 1990 – January 1991). The UN Security Council passed Resolution 678 on 29 November 1990, authorising member states to use "all necessary means" to remove Iraq from Kuwait if it did not withdraw by 15 January 1991.
The Gulf War: Operation Desert Storm
When the deadline passed with no Iraqi withdrawal, coalition forces launched Operation Desert Storm on 17 January 1991. The war consisted of two phases:
Air campaign (17 January – 23 February):
Coalition forces conducted over 100,000 air sorties, systematically destroying Iraqi command centres, communications infrastructure, military installations and strategic bridges. The air campaign established complete air superiority within days. Iraq responded by launching Scud missiles at Israel and Saudi Arabia, hoping to draw Israel into the conflict and fracture the Arab-Western coalition. The US deployed Patriot missile defence systems to intercept these attacks.
Ground offensive (24–28 February):
The ground assault lasted just 100 hours. Coalition forces liberated Kuwait City on 27 February, while US armoured divisions swept deep into Iraq, encircling and destroying Iraqi Republican Guard divisions. Iraqi forces retreated along the "Highway of Death," where coalition aircraft destroyed thousands of vehicles attempting to flee Kuwait.
President Bush declared a ceasefire on 28 February 1991 after Kuwait's liberation, controversially deciding not to march on Baghdad or remove Saddam Hussein from power. The war resulted in:
- Approximately 25,000–50,000 Iraqi military deaths
- 292 coalition military deaths (148 American)
- Unknown civilian casualties
- Complete liberation of Kuwait
- Massive environmental damage from oil well fires
Post-Gulf War consequences and containment
The ceasefire agreement required Iraq to accept several conditions:
UN inspections:
UN weapons inspectors (UNSCOM, later UNMOVIC) were mandated to locate and destroy Iraq's Weapons of Mass Destruction programmes. Throughout the 1990s, inspectors discovered and destroyed chemical weapons, biological weapons facilities and long-range missile programmes. However, Saddam's regime repeatedly obstructed inspections, leading to crises in 1997–98.
Sanctions and no-fly zones:
Economic sanctions remained in place to pressure Iraq into compliance with UN resolutions. The UN established an "Oil-for-Food Programme" in 1995, allowing Iraq to sell limited oil to purchase humanitarian supplies. However, the regime manipulated the programme while ordinary Iraqis suffered.
The coalition established no-fly zones in northern Iraq (above the 36th parallel) and southern Iraq (below the 32nd parallel) to protect Kurdish and Shia populations from Iraqi air attacks. US and UK aircraft patrolled these zones throughout the 1990s, regularly engaging Iraqi air defences.
Internal uprisings:
Encouraged by coalition victory, Kurdish populations in the north and Shia Muslims in the south rebelled against Saddam's regime in March 1991. Saddam brutally suppressed both uprisings using helicopter gunships and ground forces, killing thousands. The coalition's failure to support these rebellions disappointed many Iraqis who had expected Western assistance.
Afghanistan, the Taliban and 9/11
Afghanistan descended into civil war following Soviet withdrawal in 1989. By 1996, the Taliban movement, composed largely of Pashtun religious students and former mujahideen, captured Kabul and established an Islamic emirate. The Taliban imposed strict interpretation of Sharia law:
- Women banned from education and most employment
- Music, television and most entertainment prohibited
- Harsh punishments including public executions
- Destruction of cultural heritage, including the Bamiyan Buddhas in 2001
The Taliban provided sanctuary to al-Qaeda, the terrorist organisation led by Osama bin Laden. Bin Laden, a Saudi Arabian militant, had fought against the Soviets in Afghanistan during the 1980s. From Afghan bases, al-Qaeda planned and executed terrorist attacks:
- 1998 US embassy bombings in Kenya and Tanzania (killing 224)
- 2000 USS Cole bombing in Yemen (killing 17 US sailors)
- 11 September 2001 attacks in the United States
On 9/11, al-Qaeda operatives hijacked four commercial aircraft, crashing two into the World Trade Center towers in New York, one into the Pentagon, and one into a Pennsylvania field. Nearly 3,000 people died, making it the deadliest terrorist attack in history.
The invasion of Afghanistan 2001
Following 9/11, US President George W. Bush declared a "War on Terror" and demanded the Taliban surrender bin Laden and close al-Qaeda training camps. When the Taliban refused, the US launched Operation Enduring Freedom on 7 October 2001.
Military campaign:
Coalition forces (primarily US and UK) supported the Northern Alliance, anti-Taliban Afghan militias who controlled approximately 10% of Afghanistan. American special forces coordinated devastating air strikes against Taliban positions while Northern Alliance forces advanced on the ground.
The Taliban regime collapsed rapidly:
- Mazar-i-Sharif fell on 9 November
- Kabul fell on 13 November
- Kandahar, the Taliban's birthplace, fell on 7 December
However, many Taliban leaders and al-Qaeda fighters, including bin Laden, escaped into Pakistan's tribal areas. The Battle of Tora Bora (December 2001) failed to capture bin Laden, a significant strategic failure.
Reconstruction efforts:
The Bonn Agreement (December 2001) established an interim Afghan government under Hamid Karzai. International forces transitioned to stabilisation and reconstruction under NATO's International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) from 2003.
Challenges included:
- Taliban insurgency intensifying from 2006 onwards
- Weak central government with limited provincial control
- Flourishing opium trade funding insurgents
- Difficult terrain and porous Pakistani border
- Cultural and tribal complexities
The 2003 Iraq invasion and its aftermath
Despite lacking UN approval, the US and UK invaded Iraq in March 2003. The Bush and Blair governments justified intervention through several claims:
Justifications offered:
- Iraq possessed Weapons of Mass Destruction threatening regional and international security
- Saddam Hussein had links to al-Qaeda terrorists
- The regime violated human rights and UN resolutions
- Removing Saddam would establish democracy in the Middle East
International division:
The US sought UN authorisation but France, Russia and China opposed military action. UN weapons inspector Hans Blix reported Iraq was cooperating with inspections by early 2003 and requested more time. Nevertheless, on 20 March 2003, coalition forces invaded without explicit UN Security Council approval.
Invasion and initial occupation:
The conventional military campaign lasted three weeks. Coalition forces advanced rapidly from Kuwait, capturing Baghdad on 9 April 2003. President Bush declared "Mission Accomplished" on 1 May 2003.
However, the post-invasion occupation proved disastrous:
Immediate problems:
- No Weapons of Mass Destruction were ever found, undermining the invasion's primary justification
- Insufficient troop numbers to maintain order
- Widespread looting of government buildings and infrastructure
- Complete dissolution of Iraqi army put 400,000 armed men out of work
- De-Ba'athification policy removed experienced administrators
Insurgency and sectarian violence:
From 2003 onwards, Iraq descended into chaos:
- Sunni insurgency against occupation forces
- Shia militias targeting Sunnis and coalition troops
- Al-Qaeda in Iraq (led by Abu Musab al-Zarqawi) conducting suicide bombings
- Sectarian civil war by 2006–07
- Over 100,000 Iraqi civilian deaths by 2009
- 4,491 US military deaths by 2011
- 179 UK military deaths
The 2007 "surge" of additional US troops temporarily reduced violence, but Iraq remained unstable and deeply divided along sectarian lines.
Worked examples
Example 1: Explain two consequences of the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait (8 marks)
Model answer:
One consequence of Iraq's invasion of Kuwait was the formation of an international coalition against Iraq. President Bush assembled 34 nations, including Arab states like Egypt and Syria, to oppose Iraqi aggression. This coalition positioned over 500,000 troops in Saudi Arabia during Operation Desert Shield. This was significant because it demonstrated unprecedented international cooperation and showed that even Arab nations would oppose Iraqi expansionism when their own interests were threatened.
Another consequence was the Gulf War itself (Operation Desert Storm). When Iraq refused to withdraw from Kuwait by the UN deadline of 15 January 1991, coalition forces attacked on 17 January. The air campaign destroyed Iraqi infrastructure and military capability, followed by a ground offensive that liberated Kuwait in just 100 hours. This was significant because it established a new model for Western military intervention—overwhelming technological superiority enabling rapid victory with minimal coalition casualties—which influenced future interventions.
Mark scheme guidance: Each consequence needs identification (1 mark), supporting detail (1 mark), explanation of significance (2 marks). Total: 8 marks for two developed consequences.
Example 2: Write an account of how the events of 9/11 led to the invasion of Afghanistan (8 marks)
Model answer:
The 9/11 attacks on 11 September 2001 directly caused the invasion of Afghanistan because the Taliban regime provided sanctuary to al-Qaeda, the organisation responsible. Nearly 3,000 people died when al-Qaeda operatives crashed hijacked aircraft into the World Trade Center, the Pentagon and a Pennsylvania field. President Bush declared a "War on Terror" and demanded the Taliban surrender Osama bin Laden and close al-Qaeda training camps in Afghanistan.
When the Taliban refused these demands, the US launched Operation Enduring Freedom on 7 October 2001. Coalition forces supported the Northern Alliance with air strikes and special forces coordination. The Taliban regime collapsed within two months—Kabul fell on 13 November and Kandahar on 7 December. The invasion aimed to destroy al-Qaeda's base of operations and prevent future terrorist attacks. However, many Taliban and al-Qaeda fighters, including bin Laden himself, escaped into Pakistan, preventing complete success.
Mark scheme guidance: Must show chronological narrative with causal links between events. Award marks for: accurate detail (4 marks) and analysis of how one event led to another (4 marks). Focus on consequence and connection, not just description.
Example 3: "The main reason for the 2003 Iraq invasion was to find and destroy weapons of mass destruction." How far do you agree? (16 marks + 4 SPaG)
Model answer extract (introduction and first paragraph):
I partially agree that WMD were the main reason for the 2003 Iraq invasion, as this was the primary public justification offered by the Bush and Blair governments. However, other factors including regime change policy, strategic interests in the Middle East, and the post-9/11 desire to demonstrate Western resolve against perceived threats also significantly influenced the decision.
The WMD threat was certainly the central official justification. Both Bush and Blair claimed Iraq possessed chemical and biological weapons and was developing nuclear capability. Colin Powell presented intelligence to the UN Security Council in February 2003, claiming Iraq had mobile biological weapons laboratories and was reconstituting its nuclear programme. The September 2002 UK government dossier claimed Iraq could deploy chemical weapons within 45 minutes. This justified invasion as pre-emptive self-defence—removing weapons before Saddam could use them or provide them to terrorists. The problem with this argument is that no WMD were ever found after the invasion. Hans Blix's weapons inspectors reported cooperation and requested more time before the invasion occurred, suggesting the threat was exaggerated or fabricated...
[Answer would continue with paragraphs on regime change, post-9/11 context, and conclusion]
Mark scheme guidance: Top level (13-16 marks) requires sustained analysis, evaluation of different factors, reaching a supported judgement. Must consider multiple reasons and make comparative judgements about their relative importance. 4 SPaG marks for consistent accuracy in spelling, punctuation and grammar, plus specialist terminology.
Common mistakes and how to avoid them
Confusing the two Gulf conflicts: Students often mix up the 1991 Gulf War (liberating Kuwait) with the 2003 Iraq invasion (removing Saddam). Remember: 1991 had UN approval and broad international support; 2003 lacked UN authorisation and was controversial.
Oversimplifying causes: Avoid single-cause explanations like "the US invaded Iraq only for oil." Exam answers need multiple factors with relative weighting. Discuss WMD claims, regime change policy, post-9/11 context, strategic interests and humanitarian concerns.
Claiming direct Taliban-al-Qaeda-Iraq connections: The Taliban provided sanctuary to al-Qaeda in Afghanistan, but Saddam Hussein's Iraq had no proven operational links to al-Qaeda or 9/11, despite claims made in 2002–03. Keep these conflicts conceptually separate.
Poor chronology: Know the sequence: Kuwait invasion (August 1990) → Desert Storm (January-February 1991) → 9/11 (September 2001) → Afghanistan invasion (October 2001) → Iraq invasion (March 2003). Mixing these dates loses marks.
Neglecting consequences: Questions often ask about consequences, not just causes or events. Consider immediate outcomes (military victory, regime collapse) and longer-term impacts (insurgency, sectarian violence, regional instability, terrorism).
Ignoring international perspectives: Don't assume all countries supported US/UK actions. France, Russia and China opposed the 2003 Iraq invasion; many Muslim-majority countries opposed both invasions. Demonstrating awareness of different perspectives strengthens analysis.
Exam technique for "Conflict and Tension in the Gulf and Afghanistan, 1990–2009"
Understand command words: "Explain" requires causes/consequences with supporting detail (8 marks). "Write an account" needs chronological narrative showing how events connect (8 marks). "How far do you agree" demands evaluation of a statement with balanced argument and judgement (16 marks + 4 SPaG).
Use precise factual support: Vague answers like "there was fighting" score poorly. Include specific details: dates (17 January 1991), numbers (34-nation coalition), names (Saddam Hussein, George Bush, Tony Blair, Osama bin Laden), operations (Desert Storm, Enduring Freedom) and resolutions (UN Resolution 678).
Structure essay answers clearly: For 16-mark questions, write an introduction stating your argument, three analytical paragraphs addressing different factors, and a conclusion reaching a supported judgement. Each paragraph should make a point, support it with evidence, and explain its significance.
Manage your time: 8-mark questions need approximately 12 minutes; 16-mark questions need approximately 25 minutes. Don't spend excessive time on early questions at the expense of the essay, which carries most marks and includes SPaG assessment.
Quick revision summary
The Gulf and Afghanistan conflicts from 1990–2009 reshaped international relations and Middle Eastern politics. Iraq's 1990 invasion of Kuwait prompted the UN-authorised Gulf War, which liberated Kuwait but left Saddam Hussein in power. The 9/11 attacks led to the invasion of Taliban-controlled Afghanistan and the broader War on Terror. The controversial 2003 Iraq invasion, justified by WMD claims later proven false, removed Saddam but triggered prolonged insurgency and sectarian violence. These conflicts demonstrated both the capabilities and limitations of Western military intervention, with consequences still affecting the region today.