What you'll learn
This topic examines the origins, key events and consequences of the First World War from 1894 to 1918. You'll explore the complex alliance systems and tensions that led to war, the nature of trench warfare, the impact on civilians, and how the conflict ended with the Paris Peace Conference. Understanding cause and consequence, as well as change and continuity, is essential for success in this paper.
Key terms and definitions
Militarism — the belief that a country should maintain strong armed forces and be prepared to use them to defend or promote national interests; led to an arms race, particularly naval competition between Britain and Germany.
Entente — a friendly understanding or informal alliance between countries; Britain, France and Russia formed the Triple Entente by 1907, creating a counterbalance to the Triple Alliance.
Schlieffen Plan — Germany's military strategy to avoid fighting a two-front war by quickly defeating France through Belgium before turning east to fight Russia.
Attrition — a military strategy of wearing down the enemy through continuous losses in personnel and material; characterized the Western Front battles like Verdun and the Somme.
Armistice — an agreement to stop fighting; the armistice of 11 November 1918 ended the fighting on the Western Front at 11am.
Reparations — compensation payments demanded from Germany by the Treaty of Versailles for war damage caused to Allied nations; set at £6.6 billion in 1921.
Self-determination — the principle that nations should have the right to decide their own government and political status; one of Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points.
War guilt clause — Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles, which forced Germany to accept sole responsibility for causing the war.
Core concepts
The causes of the First World War, 1894-1914
The outbreak of war in 1914 resulted from both long-term and short-term causes that created a volatile international situation.
Long-term tensions:
The alliance system divided Europe into two armed camps. The Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy from 1882) faced the Triple Entente (France, Russia, Britain by 1907). These alliances were meant to prevent war through deterrence but instead ensured that a local conflict could escalate.
Imperial rivalry intensified as European powers competed for colonies, particularly in Africa and Asia. The Moroccan Crises (1905, 1911) heightened Franco-German tensions when Germany challenged French influence in Morocco.
The arms race saw Britain and Germany compete for naval supremacy. Germany's Navy Laws (1898, 1900) challenged British naval dominance. Britain responded with HMS Dreadnought (1906), sparking a costly battleship race.
Nationalism threatened multi-ethnic empires, particularly Austria-Hungary. Slavic nationalism in the Balkans, encouraged by Russia and Serbia, created instability in southeastern Europe.
The Balkans crisis:
The Balkans were known as the "powder keg of Europe." Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908, angering Serbia and Russia. The Balkan Wars (1912-13) increased Serbian power and heightened tensions with Austria-Hungary.
The assassination and July Crisis 1914:
Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, was assassinated in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914 by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb nationalist linked to the Black Hand terrorist group. Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia on 23 July. Serbia's partial rejection led Austria-Hungary to declare war on 28 July. The alliance system transformed this into a general European war within days: Russia mobilized to support Serbia; Germany declared war on Russia (1 August) and France (3 August); Germany invaded neutral Belgium, bringing Britain into the war (4 August).
The nature of warfare on the Western Front
The Western Front stretched from the Belgian coast to the Swiss border and was characterized by static trench warfare after the failure of Germany's Schlieffen Plan.
Trench warfare:
Soldiers lived in elaborate trench systems with front-line trenches, support trenches and reserve trenches connected by communication trenches. Conditions were appalling: mud, rats, lice, and disease were constant companions. Trench foot, caused by standing in waterlogged trenches, could lead to amputation.
No Man's Land separated opposing trenches, typically 50-300 yards wide, filled with barbed wire, shell craters and the bodies of the dead.
Key battles:
The Battle of the Somme (July-November 1916) aimed to relieve pressure on French forces at Verdun and break through German lines. On 1 July 1916, British forces suffered 57,000 casualties (20,000 dead) in a single day. The battle introduced tanks but achieved limited territorial gains at enormous cost: over one million casualties combined.
The Battle of Verdun (February-December 1916) saw Germany attempt to "bleed France white" through attrition. French forces, organized by General Pétain, held the fortress city. Combined casualties exceeded 700,000.
Third Battle of Ypres/Passchendaele (July-November 1917) was fought in appalling mud, with British and Commonwealth forces advancing just five miles at a cost of 245,000 casualties.
New weapons and tactics:
- Machine guns could fire 400-600 rounds per minute, making frontal attacks suicidal
- Artillery barrages preceded attacks but often warned defenders
- Poison gas (first used at Ypres, 1915) caused terrible injuries; chlorine, phosgene and mustard gas were deployed
- Tanks, introduced in 1916, showed potential at Cambrai (1917) but were unreliable
- Aircraft evolved from reconnaissance to fighters and bombers
The wider war
The conflict extended far beyond Western Europe, involving multiple fronts and global participants.
The Eastern Front saw more mobile warfare across vast distances. Russia initially invaded East Prussia but suffered catastrophic defeats at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes (1914). The Russian Revolution (1917) and Bolshevik surrender at Brest-Litovsk (March 1918) ended Russia's participation.
Gallipoli Campaign (1915-16): Allied forces attempted to knock Ottoman Turkey out of the war and open a supply route to Russia through the Dardanelles. Poor planning and fierce Turkish resistance, led by Mustafa Kemal, resulted in Allied withdrawal after 250,000 casualties. ANZAC (Australian and New Zealand Army Corps) forces particularly suffered, making Gallipoli central to Australian and New Zealand national identity.
The war at sea featured the British naval blockade of Germany and German U-boat (submarine) warfare. The Battle of Jutland (1916) was the war's largest naval battle but proved indecisive. Unrestricted submarine warfare, resumed in February 1917, aimed to starve Britain but brought the United States into the war.
The home front and total war
The First World War was the first total war, requiring complete mobilization of national resources and affecting entire populations.
Government control:
The Defence of the Realm Act (DORA, 1914) gave the British government extensive powers to requisition resources, censor media, and control industry. Governments took over factories, mines and railways for war production.
Propaganda was used extensively to maintain morale, encourage recruitment, and demonize the enemy. Posters, films and newspapers presented simplified, often distorted views of the war.
Recruitment and conscription:
Initially, Britain relied on voluntary recruitment, with the "Pals Battalions" allowing men from the same communities to serve together. When volunteers proved insufficient, conscription (compulsory military service) was introduced in 1916 for men aged 18-41. Conscientious objectors who refused military service faced tribunal hearings and often harsh treatment.
Women's war work:
Women filled roles previously reserved for men, working in munitions factories, transport, and agriculture. Munitionettes faced dangerous conditions working with TNT, which turned their skin yellow. The Women's Land Army worked on farms. Women's contribution strengthened the case for female suffrage; the Representation of the People Act (1918) gave the vote to women over 30 who met property qualifications.
Rationing:
German U-boats threatened British food supplies. Voluntary rationing began in 1917; compulsory rationing of sugar, meat, butter and other foods was introduced in 1918, ensuring fair distribution.
The end of the war and armistice
By 1918, several factors combined to end the deadlock and bring Allied victory.
Germany's Spring Offensive (March-July 1918) used troops transferred from the Eastern Front and new "stormtrooper" tactics to achieve initial breakthroughs. However, Germany lacked reserves to exploit gains and suffered unsustainable casualties.
The Hundred Days Offensive (August-November 1918) saw Allied forces, reinforced by two million American troops, push Germany back using coordinated infantry, artillery, tank and aircraft attacks. Germany's allies collapsed: Bulgaria (September), Ottoman Empire (October), Austria-Hungary (November).
Internal collapse in Germany resulted from the British naval blockade causing food shortages, war-weariness, and political unrest. Mutinies in the German navy and revolution forced Kaiser Wilhelm II to abdicate on 9 November 1918.
The armistice was signed in a railway carriage at Compiègne on 11 November 1918, ending fighting at 11am.
The Paris Peace Conference and Treaty of Versailles
The Paris Peace Conference (1919) brought together 32 nations, but the key decisions were made by the "Big Three": Georges Clemenceau (France), David Lloyd George (Britain), and Woodrow Wilson (USA).
Different aims:
- Clemenceau wanted to punish Germany severely, weaken it permanently, and ensure French security. France had suffered enormous damage and casualties.
- Wilson promoted his Fourteen Points, emphasizing self-determination, disarmament, and the creation of a League of Nations to prevent future wars. He opposed harsh treatment of Germany.
- Lloyd George wanted a moderate peace that punished Germany but left it strong enough to trade and resist Communism. He had promised British voters to "make Germany pay" but feared excessive harshness would create future instability.
Key terms of the Treaty of Versailles (June 1919):
Territorial losses: Germany lost 13% of its territory and all overseas colonies. Alsace-Lorraine returned to France; the Saar coalfields placed under League of Nations control for 15 years; West Prussia and Posen given to Poland, creating the Polish Corridor; Danzig became a free city; Rhineland demilitarized.
Military restrictions: Army limited to 100,000 men; no conscription; no tanks, aircraft or submarines; navy limited to six battleships; Rhineland permanently demilitarized.
The war guilt clause (Article 231) forced Germany to accept sole responsibility for the war.
Reparations of £6.6 billion were to compensate Allied nations for war damage.
German reactions:
Germans condemned the treaty as a "Diktat" (dictated peace) imposed without negotiation. The war guilt clause was particularly resented as unfair. Economic difficulties from reparations and territorial losses fueled resentment that would later be exploited by extremist politicians.
Worked examples
Example 1: 4-mark "Describe" question
Describe two problems faced by soldiers in the trenches on the Western Front. (4 marks)
Model answer:
One problem was trench foot, a painful condition caused by standing in cold, waterlogged trenches for extended periods. If untreated, it could lead to gangrene and amputation. (2 marks)
Another problem was constant bombardment from enemy artillery, which caused physical casualties and psychological trauma known as shell shock. The noise and stress of bombardment could leave soldiers unable to function. (2 marks)
Examiner guidance: Give two distinct problems with developed explanation for each. Two marks are available for each problem: one for identification, one for supporting detail.
Example 2: 12-mark "Explain" question
Explain why the Schlieffen Plan failed in 1914. (12 marks)
Model answer structure:
Introduction: The Schlieffen Plan failed because of Belgian resistance, British intervention, Russian mobilization, and tactical modifications.
Paragraph 1 - Belgian resistance: Germany expected to pass through Belgium quickly, but King Albert's forces resisted, slowing the German advance. The delay allowed French and British forces to organize defensive positions. (Explain impact on timeline)
Paragraph 2 - British Expeditionary Force: Britain's entry into the war after the invasion of Belgium brought professional troops to France. Though small, the BEF slowed German forces at Mons and Le Cateau, buying crucial time. (Link to overall failure)
Paragraph 3 - Faster Russian mobilization: The plan assumed Russia would take six weeks to mobilize, but Russian forces invaded East Prussia within two weeks. Germany diverted troops east to defend its territory, weakening the critical right wing attacking France. (Explain cause and consequence)
Paragraph 4 - Modifications to the plan: General Moltke modified Schlieffen's original plan, weakening the right wing. When faced with Paris's defenses, he ordered troops to swing east of Paris rather than west, exposing the German flank to French counterattack at the Battle of the Marne. (Link factors together)
Conclusion: Multiple factors combined to prevent the rapid victory Germany needed. The resulting stalemate led to trench warfare on the Western Front.
Examiner guidance: This question requires analysis of multiple causes with links between them. Use specific factual knowledge to support explanations. Show how factors combined to produce the outcome.
Example 3: 16-mark "How far do you agree" question
"The main reason for the Allied victory in 1918 was American entry into the war." How far do you agree with this statement? (16 marks + 4 SPaG)
Model answer structure:
This requires a balanced argument examining American contribution alongside other factors: the British naval blockade, military developments, collapse of German allies, and internal German collapse. Reach a supported judgment about which factor(s) were most significant. Include precise evidence for each factor and explicit links between points. Maintain clear organization with analytical paragraphs, not narrative. The conclusion should directly address the question with justified reasoning.
Common mistakes and how to avoid them
Narrative rather than analysis: Don't just tell the story of events. Always explain why things happened and what their consequences were. Use analytical phrases like "This led to..." or "As a result..."
Ignoring the dates in the specification: The topic covers 1894-1918 for a reason. Don't focus exclusively on 1914-1918; you need to understand the build-up to war from the 1890s onwards.
Treating all causes as equally important: Examiners reward prioritization and judgment. Argue which factors were most significant and explain why, using phrases like "most important factor" or "decisive cause."
Lack of specific factual knowledge: General statements like "conditions were bad" score poorly. Use precise details: "57,000 British casualties on 1 July 1916" or "Article 231 forced Germany to accept war guilt."
Ignoring question command words: "Describe" requires factual detail; "Explain" requires analysis of causes/consequences; "How far do you agree" requires evaluation and judgment. Adjust your approach accordingly.
One-sided answers to evaluation questions: For 16-mark questions, you must consider different perspectives before reaching a judgment. Don't just argue for one view.
Exam technique for "Conflict and Tension: The First World War, 1894–1918"
Know your command words: "Describe" = provide factual details; "Explain why" = analyze causes with supporting evidence; "Explain the importance" = analyze consequences/significance; "How far do you agree" = evaluate different viewpoints and reach a supported judgment.
Use the mark scheme structure: 4-mark questions need two developed points; 12-mark questions require analysis of multiple factors with links; 16-mark questions demand evaluation of different perspectives with a substantiated conclusion. Allocate roughly one mark per minute.
Support every point with precise evidence: Names, dates, statistics, and specific examples demonstrate knowledge and support analysis. Learn key figures: 57,000 casualties on 1 July 1916; £6.6 billion reparations; 100,000-man army limit.
Link factors together in longer answers: The best responses show how causes combined or how one factor led to another. Use connectives like "This was compounded by..." or "Furthermore, this combined with... to produce..."
Quick revision summary
The First World War resulted from alliance systems, imperial rivalry, militarism and nationalism, triggered by the Sarajevo assassination. Trench warfare on the Western Front featured new weapons and tactics, causing unprecedented casualties at battles like the Somme and Verdun. Total war mobilized entire populations through conscription, DORA, and propaganda, transforming women's roles. Allied victory in 1918 resulted from American entry, the naval blockade, military developments, and internal German collapse. The Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh terms including territorial losses, military restrictions, war guilt, and reparations, creating lasting German resentment.