Elizabethan England, c1568–1603

What you'll learn

This topic examines England during Elizabeth I's reign from 1568 to 1603, focusing on the challenges she faced as monarch. You'll study religious divisions, Catholic and Puritan threats, plots against Elizabeth, conflict with Spain, exploration of the New World, and the treatment of the poor. Understanding both the problems Elizabeth faced and how she responded is essential for exam success.

Key terms and definitions

Religious Settlement — Elizabeth's 1559 compromise that established a moderate Protestant Church of England, designed to satisfy both Catholics and Protestants while asserting royal supremacy.

Recusants — Catholics who refused to attend Church of England services, risking fines of one shilling per absence and potential imprisonment or execution for persistent non-attendance.

Jesuits — Catholic priests trained in Europe (particularly at seminaries in Douai and Rome) and sent secretly to England to maintain Catholic faith and convert Protestants, viewed as traitors by the government.

Monopolies — Exclusive rights granted by the monarch to individuals or companies to trade particular goods, which became controversial in Elizabeth's later reign as they raised prices.

Privateering — State-sanctioned piracy where English sailors like Drake attacked Spanish ships and colonies, sharing profits with the Crown while weakening Spain.

Poor Rate — A local tax collected by parishes under the 1601 Poor Law to fund relief for the genuinely needy, marking a shift toward systematic poor relief.

Progresses — Elizabeth's summer tours around the country, staying at nobles' homes to display royal magnificence, maintain loyalty, and avoid costs of maintaining her entire court at one location.

Armada — The Spanish invasion fleet of 130 ships sent by Philip II in 1588 to overthrow Elizabeth and restore Catholic rule in England.

Core concepts

Elizabeth's early challenges and the Religious Settlement

Elizabeth became queen in 1558 facing immediate problems. As a woman and Protestant in a male-dominated, religiously divided society, her legitimacy was questioned. Catholics viewed her as illegitimate because they didn't recognize Henry VIII's divorce from Catherine of Aragon.

The Religious Settlement of 1559 established Elizabeth's middle way:

• Act of Supremacy made Elizabeth 'Supreme Governor' (not 'Head') of the Church of England
• Act of Uniformity required use of the Book of Common Prayer and church attendance
• Churches retained some Catholic features (vestments, music) but Protestant theology
• Aimed to unify the country and reduce religious conflict

This settlement satisfied neither extreme Catholics nor Puritans, creating ongoing tension throughout her reign.

Catholic plots and Mary, Queen of Scots

Mary Stuart arrived in England in 1568 after fleeing Scotland, becoming the focus of Catholic plotting. As Elizabeth's cousin and a Catholic with a claim to the English throne, Mary represented a constant threat.

Major Catholic plots:

• Revolt of the Northern Earls (1569) — Northern Catholic nobles attempted to overthrow Elizabeth, free Mary and restore Catholicism. The rebellion failed; over 400 rebels were executed, demonstrating Elizabeth's determination to maintain control.

• Ridolfi Plot (1571) — Italian banker Roberto Ridolfi planned to assassinate Elizabeth, marry Mary to the Duke of Norfolk, and trigger a Spanish invasion. The plot was discovered through Francis Walsingham's spy network; Norfolk was executed.

• Throckmorton Plot (1583) — Francis Throckmorton coordinated plans for French invasion. Discovery led to increased persecution of Catholics and execution of Throckmorton.

• Babington Plot (1586) — Anthony Babington planned Elizabeth's assassination. Walsingham's agents intercepted coded letters proving Mary's involvement, finally providing evidence to execute her in 1587.

Government responses escalated over time:

• 1571: Treason Act made denying Elizabeth's legitimacy punishable by death
• 1581: Recusancy fines increased to £20 monthly; saying Catholic Mass became treason
• 1585: Act against Jesuits allowed execution of Catholic priests
• 1593: Catholics forbidden from traveling more than five miles from home

The Spanish Armada and conflict with Spain

Relations with Spain deteriorated through Elizabeth's reign, culminating in the 1588 Armada.

Causes of conflict:

• English support for Dutch Protestant rebels against Spanish rule
• Drake's privateering raids on Spanish colonies and treasure ships
• Elizabeth's 1585 Treaty of Nonsuch providing military aid to the Netherlands
• Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots in 1587
• Religious differences—Philip II saw himself as defender of Catholicism
• Competition over New World trade and colonies

The Armada campaign (1588):

Philip II assembled 130 ships carrying 30,000 men to invade England. The Spanish plan required the Armada to collect additional troops from the Netherlands under the Duke of Parma before landing in England.

English advantages:

• Faster, more maneuverable ships
• Superior long-range cannons
• Knowledge of English waters
• Leadership of experienced sailors (Drake, Howard, Hawkins)

Key events:

1. English ships harassed the Armada up the English Channel
2. Fireships scattered Spanish vessels at Calais
3. Battle of Gravelines inflicted significant damage
4. Storms destroyed many ships as the Armada sailed around Scotland and Ireland
5. Fewer than half the Spanish ships returned home

Significance: The victory boosted English Protestant morale, enhanced Elizabeth's prestige, confirmed England's naval strength, and encouraged further exploration and colonization.

Elizabethan exploration and the New World

English exploration expanded dramatically during Elizabeth's reign, driven by economic, religious and strategic motives.

Key explorers and voyages:

• Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe (1577-1580), raiding Spanish settlements and returning with £400,000 in treasure. Elizabeth knighted him aboard the Golden Hind, signaling royal approval of privateering.

• Walter Raleigh attempted to establish the Roanoke colony in Virginia (1585-1590), though the settlement ultimately failed. His efforts demonstrated English colonial ambitions.

• John Hawkins pioneered English involvement in the transatlantic slave trade, selling enslaved Africans to Spanish colonies despite Spanish restrictions.

Motivations for exploration:

• Economic gain through trade, plunder and discovering new resources
• Spreading Protestantism to counter Spanish Catholic influence
• Finding the Northwest Passage to Asia
• Establishing colonies for raw materials and markets
• National prestige and competing with Spain and Portugal

Impact: Exploration brought wealth to investors, enhanced England's international reputation, established early colonial claims, and introduced new goods like tobacco and potatoes. However, colonization also initiated England's involvement in the transatlantic slave trade and exploitation of indigenous peoples.

Elizabethan society and the problem of poverty

Elizabeth's reign saw significant social changes and growing concern about poverty.

The Elizabethan social hierarchy:

• Nobility (60-70 families owning vast estates)
• Gentry (landowners with increasing wealth and political influence)
• Yeomen (prosperous farmers owning land)
• Tenant farmers
• Landless laborers and unemployed poor

Causes of increased poverty:

• Population growth from 3 million (1551) to 4 million (1601), increasing competition for jobs
• Inflation and rising food prices
• Enclosure of common land for sheep farming, reducing employment
• Dissolution of monasteries under Henry VIII removed traditional poor relief
• Poor harvests in the 1590s
• Returning soldiers after wars needing work

Attitudes toward poverty:

Elizabethans distinguished between the deserving poor (unable to work due to age, illness or disability) and idle poor (able-bodied people refusing work). Vagabonds were viewed as dangerous criminals threatening social order.

Government responses:

• 1563 Statute of Artificers regulated wages and required seven-year apprenticeships for craftsmen
• 1572 Vagabonds Act established the first compulsory poor rate and created positions of Overseers of the Poor
• 1576 Poor Relief Act provided materials for the poor to work
• 1601 Poor Law (consolidated earlier acts):
  • Compulsory poor rates collected in each parish
  • Overseers appointed to organize relief
  • 'Impotent poor' received outdoor relief (help at home)
  • Able-bodied poor placed in workhouses
  • Idle vagabonds sent to Houses of Correction for punishment

Local initiatives also emerged, such as hospital provisions in Norwich and London, showing increased recognition that poverty required systematic solutions rather than charity alone.

Elizabethan culture and the Golden Age

Elizabeth's reign witnessed a cultural flourishing, particularly in theater, art and architecture.

Theater and entertainment:

• William Shakespeare wrote plays performed at the Globe Theatre (built 1599)
• Christopher Marlowe produced works like Doctor Faustus
• Theaters built in Southwark, outside City of London jurisdiction
• Both commoners and nobles attended performances
• Puritan opposition to theater as immoral entertainment

Architecture:

The Prodigy Houses symbolized wealth and loyalty to Elizabeth:

• Hardwick Hall (built 1590s) featured huge glass windows displaying wealth
• Longleat House demonstrated classical Renaissance influences
• 'E' or 'H' shaped floor plans
• Long galleries for exercise and displaying portraits
• Elaborate gardens and parklands

These mansions served multiple purposes: demonstrating the owner's wealth and status, providing suitable accommodation for royal visits during progresses, and displaying loyalty to the Crown.

Fashion and portraiture:

Elizabeth carefully controlled her image through portraits emphasizing her majesty, virginity and divine right to rule. The Ditchley Portrait and Armada Portrait used symbolism to project power and England's victory over Spain.

Worked examples

Example 1: 4-mark "describe" question

Question: Describe two features of the Religious Settlement of 1559.

Model answer: One feature of the Religious Settlement was the Act of Supremacy, which made Elizabeth the Supreme Governor of the Church of England. This gave her control over the Church but used a less controversial title than 'Supreme Head' to avoid offending Catholics who believed only the Pope could head the Church.

Another feature was the Act of Uniformity, which required all churches to use the Book of Common Prayer. This ensured services followed the same Protestant format across England, though it included enough traditional elements to avoid completely alienating Catholics, such as allowing clergy to wear vestments.

Mark scheme notes: Each developed feature earns 2 marks. Must identify the feature AND add supporting detail about its nature or purpose.

Example 2: 12-mark "explain" question

Question: Explain why there was conflict between England and Spain in the years 1558-1588.

Model answer structure:

Introduction: Conflict between England and Spain developed for religious, economic and political reasons, escalating from tension to open warfare.

Paragraph 1—Religion: Philip II of Spain was a devout Catholic who saw Protestant Elizabeth as illegitimate and a heretic. Elizabeth's support for Dutch Protestant rebels fighting Spanish rule in the Netherlands from 1585 directly challenged Spanish power. The execution of Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots in 1587 removed any hope of peaceful restoration of Catholicism, convincing Philip that invasion was necessary to save English souls and defend Catholicism.

Paragraph 2—Economic rivalry: English privateers, particularly Francis Drake, attacked Spanish treasure ships and raided colonies in the New World, seizing gold and silver. Drake's circumnavigation (1577-1580) netted £400,000, which Elizabeth shared while knighting Drake—a clear provocation to Spain. This privateering damaged Spanish finances and challenged their monopoly over New World trade, making conflict increasingly likely.

Paragraph 3—Political factors: Elizabeth's 1585 Treaty of Nonsuch committed English troops and money to support Dutch independence, directly threatening Spanish control of the strategically vital Netherlands. Spain also supported Catholic plots against Elizabeth, including the Throckmorton Plot (1583), creating mutual distrust. Philip believed conquering England would end support for Dutch rebels and secure Spanish dominance.

Conclusion: Religious antagonism provided the underlying motivation, but economic competition and political support for opposing sides in the Dutch revolt transformed tension into open conflict, culminating in the Armada.

Mark scheme notes: Level 4 (10-12 marks) requires explaining multiple causes with developed analysis showing how each factor caused conflict. Must demonstrate links between causes and prioritize or show relative importance.

Example 3: 16-mark "essay" question with 4-mark SPaG

Question: 'The main consequence of the failure of the Spanish Armada was the increase in English exploration.' How far do you agree? Explain your answer. You may use the following in your answer: Drake's circumnavigation, colonies in Virginia. You must also use information of your own.

Answer approach:

Introduction: State your argument clearly—agree, disagree, or partially agree. Example: "While the Armada's defeat did encourage exploration, equally important consequences included the boost to Protestantism and Elizabeth's enhanced prestige."

Paragraph supporting the statement: The Armada's failure demonstrated English naval superiority and made investors more confident in funding voyages. Drake's earlier circumnavigation (1577-1580) had already shown exploration's potential profits, and the 1588 victory confirmed England could challenge Spain at sea. Raleigh's Virginia colony attempts accelerated after 1588, leading to expanded colonial ambitions in the 1600s. The defeat also freed English resources previously needed for defense.

Paragraphs offering alternative consequences: The victory massively boosted Protestant morale across Europe, confirming to many that God favored Protestantism over Catholicism—a propaganda victory as important as the military one. Elizabeth's prestige soared domestically and internationally; she had defeated Europe's greatest power as a female Protestant monarch, strengthening her authority. Furthermore, the Armada's failure didn't end the Anglo-Spanish war, which continued draining resources until 1604, causing economic strain that arguably hindered exploration.

Conclusion: Reach a balanced judgment. Example: "Although the Armada's defeat encouraged exploration by proving English naval capability, the psychological and political consequences—strengthening Protestantism and Elizabeth's authority—were equally significant and more immediate in their impact."

Mark scheme notes: Level 4 (13-16 marks) requires sustained analysis of the stated consequence AND alternative consequences, with a supported judgment. SPaG marks awarded for accurate spelling, punctuation, grammar, and use of specialist terminology.

Common mistakes and how to avoid them

• Confusing chronology: Students often muddle the order of Catholic plots. Remember: Northern Earls (1569), Ridolfi (1571), Throckmorton (1583), Babington (1586). Create a timeline to memorize the sequence and how government responses intensified.

• Lacking specific detail: Writing "Drake sailed around the world" earns minimal credit. Add precise detail: "Drake's circumnavigation (1577-1580) raided Spanish Pacific coast settlements and returned with £400,000 in treasure, which Elizabeth shared, demonstrating royal approval of privateering."

• Ignoring the question focus: A question about consequences of the Armada requires analysis of results, not detailed narrative of the battle itself. Briefly establish context, then focus on impacts like enhanced Protestant morale, increased exploration, and continued war costs.

• One-sided essays: The 16-mark question requires examining different perspectives or consequences. If arguing Elizabeth's government was effective, also acknowledge failures or limitations to demonstrate balanced analysis.

• Not explaining causation: Simply listing factors doesn't earn high marks. Explain HOW each factor caused the outcome. For example: "Enclosure caused poverty BECAUSE it reduced agricultural employment, forcing rural laborers to move to towns seeking work that didn't exist."

• Poor time management: The 16+4 mark question deserves approximately 25 minutes. Practice timed essays to develop efficient planning and writing. Spend 5 minutes planning, 18 minutes writing, 2 minutes checking.

Exam technique for "Elizabethan England, c1568–1603"

• Know your command words: "Describe" requires factual features without explanation (4 marks). "Explain why" demands analysis of causes with developed reasoning (12 marks). "How far do you agree" needs a balanced argument with judgment (16+4 marks).

• Use the Point-Evidence-Explanation structure: Make a clear point, support with specific historical evidence (names, dates, statistics), then explain how this evidence answers the question. For example: "Religion caused conflict with Spain [point]. Philip II was a devout Catholic who viewed Elizabeth as a heretic [evidence]. This religious opposition meant Philip believed he had a duty to overthrow her and restore Catholicism, making war inevitable [explanation]."

• Deploy specialist terminology: Use terms like Religious Settlement, recusants, Jesuits, privateering, and progresses accurately. This demonstrates historical knowledge and earns SPaG marks on the 16+4 question.

• Write a clear conclusion for essay questions: Don't just repeat earlier points. Reach a supported judgment that weighs up different factors or consequences, showing which was most significant and why.

Quick revision summary

Elizabeth I faced religious division, Catholic plots centered on Mary Queen of Scots, and eventual war with Spain culminating in the 1588 Armada. Her Religious Settlement attempted compromise but satisfied neither Catholics nor Puritans. Growing poverty required new Poor Laws establishing systematic parish relief. English exploration expanded through privateering and colonization attempts. Cultural achievements in theater and architecture marked a Golden Age. Success came through careful image management, effective use of advisors like Walsingham and Cecil, and pragmatic religious policy, though challenges persisted throughout her 45-year reign.