Germany, 1890–1945: Democracy and Dictatorship

What you'll learn

This revision guide covers Germany from Kaiser Wilhelm II's reign through the Weimar Republic to Nazi dictatorship under Hitler. You'll examine why democracy failed in Germany, how the Nazis seized power, and the nature of Hitler's totalitarian state. This topic accounts for one Paper 2 option in your AQA GCSE History exam.

Key terms and definitions

Kaiser — The German Emperor; Wilhelm II ruled 1888-1918 and established an authoritarian system with limited democracy.

Weimar Republic — Germany's democratic government from 1919-1933, named after the town where the constitution was written.

Article 48 — Emergency powers in the Weimar Constitution allowing the President to rule by decree without the Reichstag's consent.

Hyperinflation — Rapid, uncontrolled price increases that destroyed German savings in 1923 when money became worthless.

Führer — "Leader" in German; Hitler's title after merging the roles of Chancellor and President in 1934.

Gleichschaltung — "Coordination" or "bringing into line"; the Nazi process of controlling all aspects of German society.

Propaganda — Biased information used to promote a political cause; Joseph Goebbels controlled all Nazi propaganda.

Kristallnacht — "Night of Broken Glass" (9-10 November 1938); a coordinated attack on Jewish homes, businesses and synagogues across Germany.

Core concepts

Kaiser Wilhelm II and Imperial Germany (1890-1918)

Wilhelm II became Kaiser in 1888 and dismissed Chancellor Bismarck in 1890, beginning his "personal rule."

Political structure:

• The Kaiser appointed the Chancellor and controlled foreign policy
• The Reichstag (parliament) was elected by universal male suffrage but had limited powers
• The Bundesrat (Federal Council) represented German states
• Real power remained with the Kaiser and his military advisors

Naval expansion and Weltpolitik:

• Wilhelm pursued "world policy" to make Germany a global power
• Naval Laws (1898, 1900) challenged British naval supremacy
• This contributed to international tensions leading to World War I

Impact of World War I:

• Germany's defeat in 1918 shocked the population
• Kaiser Wilhelm abdicated on 9 November 1918
• Many Germans believed the "stab in the back" myth — that the army had been betrayed by politicians, not defeated militarily
• This myth undermined support for the new Weimar Republic

The Weimar Republic (1919-1933)

The Treaty of Versailles (1919):

The treaty imposed harsh terms on Germany:

• War guilt clause (Article 231) forced Germany to accept blame for WWI
• Reparations of £6.6 billion
• Military restrictions: army limited to 100,000 men, no air force, no tanks, navy severely limited
• Territory losses: Alsace-Lorraine to France, Polish Corridor created, all colonies removed
• Germans called it the Diktat (dictated peace) and many never accepted its legitimacy

Constitutional strengths:

• Proportional representation gave small parties a voice
• Bill of Rights protected individual freedoms
• Universal suffrage including women over 20
• Elected President and Reichstag

Constitutional weaknesses:

• Proportional representation created many small parties, making stable coalitions difficult
• Article 48 could undermine democracy
• The President controlled the army, not the Reichstag
• No party committed to democracy had a majority

Challenges 1919-1923:

The Spartacist Uprising (January 1919):

• Communist revolt led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg
• Government used Freikorps (right-wing ex-soldiers) to crush it
• Showed the government's weakness and reliance on the right

The Kapp Putsch (March 1920):

• Right-wing attempt to overthrow the government led by Wolfgang Kapp
• Army refused to stop it, but workers' general strike defeated the coup
• Demonstrated army disloyalty to the republic

The 1923 crisis:

French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr (Germany's industrial heartland) when Germany defaulted on reparations. The government ordered passive resistance.

This caused hyperinflation:

• Government printed money to pay striking workers
• Currency collapsed: one US dollar = 4.2 trillion marks by November 1923
• Middle-class savings were wiped out
• Wages paid twice daily as money lost value hourly
• People used wheelbarrows to carry cash and burned money for heating

The Munich Putsch (November 1923):

• Hitler and Nazis attempted to overthrow the Bavarian government
• Poorly planned and easily crushed
• Hitler received only 5 years in prison (served 9 months)
• Used trial for publicity and wrote Mein Kampf in prison

The Stresemann era (1923-1929):

Gustav Stresemann as Chancellor then Foreign Minister brought stability:

• Introduced the Rentenmark to end hyperinflation
• Negotiated the Dawes Plan (1924): US loans to Germany, reparations reduced
• Young Plan (1929): further reduced reparations
• Locarno Treaties (1925): Germany accepted western borders
• Germany joined League of Nations (1926)
• Economic recovery and cultural flowering

Weimar culture:

• Berlin became a cultural centre: cabaret, cinema, art
• Bauhaus school of design
• Greater freedom for women
• Many conservatives saw this as decadent and immoral

The Nazi rise to power (1929-1933)

Impact of the Great Depression:

The Wall Street Crash (October 1929) devastated Germany:

• US loans withdrawn under the Dawes Plan
• Industrial production halved by 1932
• Unemployment rose from 1.4 million (1928) to 6 million (1932)
• Middle classes feared losing status
• Young people saw no future

Nazi appeal:

Hitler and the Nazis exploited the crisis:

• Promised to overturn Versailles
• Scapegoated Jews and communists for Germany's problems
• Offered strong leadership contrasting with weak coalition governments
• Used propaganda brilliantly: posters, rallies, Hitler's speeches
• SA (stormtroopers) created atmosphere of discipline and intimidation
• Appealed to different groups: farmers (promised help), workers (jobs), middle class (anti-communism), industrialists (anti-trade unions)

The role of political scheming:

• In the 1932 elections, Nazis became the largest party (230 seats) but lacked a majority
• President Hindenburg initially refused to appoint Hitler as Chancellor
• Von Papen (former Chancellor) persuaded Hindenburg that Hitler could be controlled in a coalition
• Hitler appointed Chancellor on 30 January 1933 with only 2 other Nazis in the cabinet

Creating the Nazi dictatorship (1933-1934)

The Reichstag Fire (27 February 1933):

• Reichstag building burned down
• Hitler blamed communists and declared emergency
• 4,000 communists arrested
• Emergency decree suspended civil rights

March 1933 election:

• Despite SA intimidation, Nazis won only 44% of votes
• Needed coalition with Nationalists to govern

The Enabling Act (23 March 1933):

• Gave Hitler power to make laws without the Reichstag for 4 years
• Required two-thirds majority
• Hitler used SA intimidation and banned communists from voting
• Only Social Democrats voted against
• This marked the legal end of democracy

Consolidating power:

• Trade unions banned (May 1933)
• All political parties except Nazis banned (July 1933)
• Germany became a one-party state
• Law Against Formation of Parties made this permanent

The Night of the Long Knives (30 June 1934):

• Hitler ordered SS to murder SA leaders including Ernst Röhm
• About 400 killed including former Chancellor von Schleicher
• SA had become too radical and powerful, threatening the army
• Army now trusted Hitler
• Removed potential opposition within Nazi movement

Hitler becomes Führer (August 1934):

• President Hindenburg died
• Hitler merged Chancellor and President roles into "Führer"
• Army swore personal oath of loyalty to Hitler
• Plebiscite approved with 90% support
• Hitler now held absolute power

Nazi control and dictatorship (1934-1939)

Police state:

Gestapo (secret state police):

• Could arrest and imprison without trial
• Created atmosphere of fear
• Used informers and denunciations
• Sent enemies to concentration camps

SS (Protection Squad):

• Elite Nazi organization led by Himmler
• Ran concentration camps
• Totally loyal to Hitler
• Included Death's Head units guarding camps

Concentration camps:

• First opened 1933 (Dachau)
• Held political prisoners, "asocials," religious opponents
• Brutal conditions, forced labour, torture
• Not yet extermination camps (came during WWII)

Propaganda and censorship:

Joseph Goebbels controlled the Reich Ministry for Public Enlightenment and Propaganda:

• Censored newspapers, books, films
• Organized mass rallies (Nuremberg Rallies)
• Controlled radio broadcasts (cheap radios distributed)
• Used posters and films to glorify Hitler and Nazis
• Promoted Nazi ideology constantly

Control of culture:

• Reich Chamber of Culture controlled all artists, writers, musicians
• "Degenerate art" banned (modern, abstract, Jewish art)
• Book burnings (May 1933) destroyed "un-German" literature
• All culture promoted Nazi values

Opposition and resistance:

Opposition was limited and ineffective:

• Some church leaders criticized Nazis (Pastor Niemöller arrested)
• Youth groups like Edelweiss Pirates rejected Hitler Youth
• Secret communist and socialist groups distributed leaflets
• Most opposition individuals, not organized movements
• Terror made organized resistance almost impossible

Nazi policies toward Jews

Persecution 1933-1939:

Stage 1 (1933-1934):

• Boycott of Jewish shops (April 1933)
• Jews dismissed from civil service
• Book burnings included Jewish authors

Nuremberg Laws (1935):

• Reich Citizenship Law: Jews lost German citizenship
• Law for Protection of German Blood: banned marriage/relationships between Jews and Aryans
• Defined who counted as Jewish by ancestry
• Made Jews second-class subjects

Stage 2 (1936-1938):

• Jews excluded from professions (doctors, lawyers, teachers)
• Forced to register property
• Jewish businesses identified

Kristallnacht (9-10 November 1938):

• Triggered by assassination of German diplomat in Paris by Jewish teenager
• Coordinated attacks across Germany
• 91 Jews killed, 30,000 arrested
• 267 synagogues destroyed
• 7,500 Jewish shops wrecked
• Jewish community fined 1 billion marks for the damage
• Marked shift to violent persecution

After Kristallnacht:

• Jews banned from schools, theatres, most public places
• Forced to sell businesses below value ("Aryanization")
• Emigration encouraged but difficult (few countries accepted refugees)

Life in Nazi Germany

Young people:

Hitler Youth (boys) and League of German Maidens (girls):

• Compulsory from 1936
• Prepared boys for military service through camping, sports, marching
• Prepared girls for motherhood and domestic roles
• Taught Nazi ideology and anti-Semitism
• Controlled leisure time

Schools:

• Teachers joined Nazi Teachers' League or lost jobs
• Curriculum emphasized Nazi ideas: race science, German history glorified
• PE increased (fitness for war)
• Girls learned domestic science

Women:

Nazi ideology promoted traditional roles:

• "Kinder, Küche, Kirche" (Children, Kitchen, Church)
• Encouraged to leave employment and have large families
• Marriage loans offered if women gave up work
• Lebensborn program encouraged "racially pure" women to have children
• Motherhood Cross awards for large families (bronze for 4, silver for 6, gold for 8+ children)

Reality was more complex:

• Labour shortages meant women needed in workforce by late 1930s
• Many women supported Nazi family policies
• Some professional women lost careers

Workers:

German Labour Front replaced trade unions:

• Strikes illegal
• Wages controlled
• Workers couldn't leave jobs without permission

Benefits offered through "Strength Through Joy" program:

• Subsidized leisure activities, holidays, sports
• "Beauty of Labour" improved some workplace conditions
• Volkswagen ("People's Car") scheme (though few delivered before war)
• Designed to win loyalty and increase productivity

Employment:

• Unemployment fell dramatically (6 million in 1933 to under 500,000 by 1939)
• Due to: rearmament, conscription (1935), public works (autobahns), women/Jews pushed from jobs
• Wages remained below 1928 levels
• Working hours increased

Economic policies:

• Autarky (self-sufficiency) pursued to prepare for war
• Four Year Plan (1936) under Göring prioritized rearmament
• Rearmament drove economic recovery but created huge debts
• Small businesses struggled; large corporations benefited
• Living standards improved from Depression levels but not to 1920s prosperity

Worked examples

Example 1: 4-mark "Describe" question

Question: Describe two problems faced by the Weimar Republic in the years 1919-1923. (4 marks)

Model answer:

One problem was political violence from extremists. The Spartacist Uprising in January 1919 saw communists attempt to overthrow the government, forcing it to use the Freikorps to restore order. This showed the government's weakness and lack of support from the army.

Another problem was the hyperinflation crisis of 1923. When Germany could not pay reparations, France occupied the Ruhr. The government printed money to pay workers on strike, causing hyperinflation where money became worthless. This destroyed middle-class savings and created enormous resentment toward the government.

Why this scores full marks:

• Two clearly different problems identified
• Each problem has specific supporting detail (dates, names, consequences)
• Clearly explained cause and effect
• 2 marks per problem (1 for identification, 1 for developed detail)

Example 2: 12-mark "Explain why" question

Question: Explain why Hitler was able to become Chancellor in January 1933. (12 marks)

You may use the following in your answer:

• The Great Depression
• The role of von Papen

You must also use information of your own.

Model answer structure:

Introduction: Hitler became Chancellor due to a combination of economic crisis, Nazi tactics, and political scheming by conservative politicians.

Paragraph 1 - Great Depression: The Wall Street Crash devastated Germany's economy. Unemployment reached 6 million by 1932, creating widespread desperation. The Weimar government appeared unable to solve the crisis, with frequent changes of Chancellor. This made Hitler's promises of strong leadership and economic recovery appealing to millions of Germans. Nazi support grew from 12 seats in 1928 to 230 in July 1932, making them the largest party.

Paragraph 2 - Nazi tactics and appeal: Hitler used brilliant propaganda to exploit the crisis. The SA created an impression of discipline while intimidating opponents. Nazi promises appealed to different groups: farmers were promised help, workers were promised jobs, and the middle class were offered protection from communism. Hitler presented himself as Germany's saviour, using modern campaign techniques like flying to rallies across Germany.

Paragraph 3 - Role of von Papen: Von Papen played a crucial role through political scheming. After losing the Chancellorship, he persuaded President Hindenburg to appoint Hitler Chancellor in January 1933. Von Papen believed Hitler could be controlled in a coalition with only two other Nazis in the cabinet. This conservative politicians' miscalculation allowed Hitler to gain power legally. Hindenburg, who had previously refused Hitler, agreed because he thought traditional politicians could manage him.

Conclusion: Hitler's appointment resulted from economic catastrophe creating support for extremism, effective Nazi campaigning, and fatal miscalculations by conservative politicians who thought they could use and control Hitler.

Why this scores highly:

• Clear argument throughout linking factors
• Three explained factors (covering both given points and own knowledge)
• Specific factual detail supporting each point
• Shows how factors link together (e.g., Depression → Nazi support → political bargaining)
• Analytical conclusion

Example 3: Source analysis question

Question: Study Source A. How useful is Source A to a historian studying Nazi propaganda methods? Explain your answer using Source A and your contextual knowledge. (8 marks)

Source A: A Nazi propaganda poster from 1933 showing Hitler in heroic pose with the slogan "One People, One Nation, One Leader."

Model answer:

Source A is useful because it demonstrates key Nazi propaganda techniques. The poster shows Hitler in a heroic, almost god-like pose, which reflects Goebbels' strategy of creating a "Führer cult" around Hitler's personality. The slogan "One People, One Nation, One Leader" promotes the Nazi idea of national unity under Hitler's absolute leadership, which was a core propaganda message after 1933.

However, the source has limitations for understanding the full range of Nazi propaganda methods. It only shows poster propaganda, but the Nazis used many other techniques. Goebbels controlled radio broadcasts, organized mass rallies like those at Nuremberg, and censored newspapers and films. The source doesn't reveal these other methods or show how propaganda changed over time.

The provenance is useful – coming from 1933, just after Hitler took power, it shows how propaganda immediately emphasized Hitler's authority and national unity. This timing is significant because the Nazis were consolidating power and needed to build support quickly.

Overall, Source A is useful for understanding visual propaganda and the Führer cult, but a historian would need other sources showing different propaganda methods, audiences, and later periods to fully understand Nazi propaganda.

Why this scores highly:

• Evaluates content (what the source shows)
• Uses contextual knowledge (Goebbels, other propaganda methods)
• Considers provenance (date, purpose)
• Identifies limitations (what's missing)
• Makes judgement about usefulness

Common mistakes and how to avoid them

• Confusing chronology: Students often muddle the sequence of events in 1933-1934. Remember the order: Reichstag Fire → March election → Enabling Act → ban on parties → Night of Long Knives → Führer. Create a timeline.

• Vague statements about propaganda: Avoid writing "Nazis used propaganda." Instead, specify: "Goebbels used the Reich Chamber of Culture to control all artists" or "Cheap radios were mass-produced so broadcasts reached most homes." Use precise examples.

• Not explaining causation: For "explain why" questions, don't just describe what happened. Explain the link: "Hyperinflation destroyed savings, which meant the middle class blamed the Weimar government, making them support anti-democratic parties like the Nazis."

• Ignoring the question focus: If asked about 1933-1939, don't write extensively about World War II or the Holocaust. Similarly, questions about opposition require discussing resistance, not just Nazi control methods.

• Treating all sources as equally useful: In source questions, evaluate based on content, provenance, and purpose. A propaganda poster is useful for studying propaganda but less useful for understanding what Germans actually thought.

• Forgetting to use given points in 12-mark questions: The bullet points are there to help structure your answer. Use them but also add your own knowledge for full marks.

Exam technique for "Germany, 1890–1945: Democracy and Dictatorship"

Command words matter:

• "Describe" (4 marks): Give factual detail about two things. Two developed points needed.
• "Explain why" (12 marks): Give causes with explanations of how they led to the outcome. Three explained factors for top marks.
• "How useful" (8 marks): Evaluate source content and provenance. Must use both the source and contextual knowledge.
• "How far do you agree" (16 marks + 4 SPaG): Argue both sides, evaluate factors, reach a judgement. Include at least three factors.

Structure 12-mark answers: Introduction stating your argument, three paragraphs each explaining one factor with specific detail, conclusion linking factors and making overall judgement about relative importance.

Use precise evidence: Replace "many people" with "6 million unemployed" or "in the November 1932 election." Specific statistics, dates, names, and events demonstrate knowledge and make arguments convincing.

Plan 16-mark essays: Spend 3-4 minutes planning to ensure balanced argument covering multiple factors, avoiding repetition, and building toward a clear conclusion.

Quick revision summary

Germany transformed from Kaiser Wilhelm II's semi-authoritarian empire through the democratic but unstable Weimar Republic to Hitler's totalitarian dictatorship. The Weimar Republic faced crises including the Versailles Treaty, hyperinflation, and the Great Depression, which Hitler exploited to gain power legally in 1933. Using the Enabling Act, Night of Long Knives, and Hindenburg's death, Hitler established absolute control by 1934. The Nazi state used propaganda, terror (Gestapo, SS, concentration camps), and Gleichschaltung to control German society, while persecuting Jews through increasingly severe measures culminating in Kristallnacht. Understanding causation, chronology, and using precise evidence are essential for exam success.