Restoration England, 1660–1685

What you'll learn

This revision guide covers the period from Charles II's return to the English throne in 1660 through to his death in 1685. You'll explore how England recovered from civil war and republican rule, the political and religious conflicts that shaped the era, and the constitutional tensions between Crown and Parliament that would define the century.

Key terms and definitions

Restoration — the return of Charles II to the English throne in 1660, ending the republican Commonwealth and Protectorate period established after Charles I's execution.

Cavalier Parliament — the strongly royalist Parliament elected in 1661 that sat until 1679, so named because many MPs had fought for Charles I during the Civil War.

Clarendon Code — a series of laws passed between 1661–1665 designed to re-establish the Church of England's dominance and restrict the religious freedoms of Protestant Dissenters.

Declaration of Indulgence — Charles II's 1672 attempt to suspend laws against Catholics and Protestant Dissenters, which Parliament forced him to withdraw in 1673.

Test Act — the 1673 law requiring all officeholders to take Anglican communion and swear oaths denying Catholic doctrine, effectively barring Catholics from public office.

Popish Plot — Titus Oates's 1678 fabricated conspiracy alleging a Catholic plan to assassinate Charles II and massacre Protestants, triggering widespread anti-Catholic hysteria.

Exclusion Crisis — the political struggle from 1679–1681 over attempts to exclude James, Duke of York (Charles's Catholic brother) from the succession.

Whigs and Tories — England's first political parties, emerging during the Exclusion Crisis: Whigs supported exclusion of James; Tories defended hereditary succession and royal authority.

Core concepts

The Restoration settlement 1660–1661

Charles II returned to England in May 1660 following negotiations with General Monck and Parliament. The settlement attempted to balance stability with lessons from the Civil War period.

Political terms:

• The Declaration of Breda (April 1660) promised a general pardon, religious toleration, and payment of the army's arrears
• Charles agreed to rule with Parliament, which controlled taxation
• The monarchy's prerogative courts (like Star Chamber) remained abolished
• Parliament voted Charles an annual income of £1.2 million, though this proved insufficient

Land and revenge:

• Royalist lands confiscated during the Civil War were returned
• However, lands sold voluntarily were not restored, causing resentment
• Only those who had signed Charles I's death warrant faced execution (the regicides)
• Oliver Cromwell's body was exhumed and posthumously executed

The Church settlement:

• The 1661 Savoy Conference failed to reconcile Anglicans with Presbyterians
• The Act of Uniformity (1662) required clergy to use the Book of Common Prayer and accept episcopal ordination
• Approximately 2,000 clergy refused and were ejected, becoming Dissenters or Nonconformists

Religious tensions and the Clarendon Code

Religious division dominated Restoration politics. The Cavalier Parliament prioritised Anglican supremacy despite Charles's preference for toleration.

Key legislation:

• Corporation Act (1661): required town officials to take Anglican communion
• Act of Uniformity (1662): enforced Anglican liturgy and ejected non-conforming clergy
• Conventicle Act (1664): banned religious meetings of more than five people outside Anglican services
• Five Mile Act (1665): prevented ejected ministers from living within five miles of corporate towns or their former parishes

Charles's approach:

• Charles personally favoured religious toleration, possibly due to Catholic sympathies
• His 1662 Declaration of Indulgence failed when Parliament refused to approve it
• His 1672 Declaration suspending penal laws was withdrawn after Parliament threatened to withhold funds
• The Test Act (1673) forced his brother James to resign as Lord High Admiral, publicly revealing his Catholicism

Impact of anti-Catholic sentiment:

• Catholics formed only 1-2% of England's population but provoked disproportionate fear
• Memories of the Gunpowder Plot (1605) and the Irish Rebellion (1641) fuelled paranoia
• Louis XIV's aggressive Catholic France appeared as a military and religious threat
• Charles's secret Treaty of Dover (1670) with France, which included a clause about converting to Catholicism, remained hidden

Foreign policy and parliamentary tensions

Charles's foreign policy frequently conflicted with Parliament's Protestant, anti-French sentiments.

The Dutch Wars:

• The Second Dutch War (1665–1667) ended in humiliation with the Dutch raid on the Medway (1667)
• Charles formed the Triple Alliance with the Dutch and Sweden (1668), pleasing Parliament
• He secretly reversed this policy with the Treaty of Dover (1670), allying with Catholic France
• The Third Dutch War (1672–1674) proved unpopular; Parliament forced peace

Financial dependence:

• Charles's inadequate income created constant conflict with Parliament
• The Stop of the Exchequer (1672) — suspending debt repayments — damaged Charles's credit
• Parliament used financial leverage to influence policy, particularly religion and foreign affairs
• Charles received secret subsidies from Louis XIV, reducing parliamentary control

Danby's ministry (1673–1679):

• Thomas Osborne, Earl of Danby, served as Lord Treasurer
• He built a royalist "court party" through patronage and management of Parliament
• Danby promoted anti-French, pro-Anglican policies to secure parliamentary supply
• His ministry collapsed amid the Popish Plot when his correspondence with France was revealed

The Popish Plot and Exclusion Crisis 1678–1681

The Popish Plot triggered England's greatest political crisis since the Civil War, exposing deep divisions over succession and royal power.

The Popish Plot (1678):

• Titus Oates fabricated claims of a Jesuit conspiracy to assassinate Charles II
• He alleged Catholics planned to massacre Protestants and place James on the throne
• The mysterious death of magistrate Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey fuelled hysteria
• Approximately 35 Catholics were executed on perjured evidence
• Parliament passed the second Test Act (1678), excluding Catholics from Parliament

The Exclusion Crisis:

• The Earl of Shaftesbury led efforts to exclude James, Duke of York, from succession
• Three Exclusion Bills were introduced between 1679–1681
• Charles dissolved the first two Parliaments to prevent the bills passing
• The 1681 Oxford Parliament lasted only one week before Charles dissolved it
• Alternative succession plans included Charles's illegitimate son, the Duke of Monmouth, or James's Protestant daughter Mary

Party formation:

• Whigs (originally an abusive term for Scottish rebels) supported exclusion, parliamentary rights, and Protestant succession
• Tories (originally Irish Catholic outlaws) defended hereditary succession, royal prerogative, and Anglican monopoly
• Both sides used print propaganda, petitions, and public demonstrations
• Political division extended beyond Parliament into local communities

Charles's later years 1681–1685

After defeating the Exclusionists, Charles ruled without Parliament for his final four years, enjoying his most secure period as king.

The Tory Reaction:

• Charles benefited from a backlash against Whig radicalism
• Improved customs revenues and French subsidies reduced financial dependence on Parliament
• The government remodelled borough charters to ensure loyalist corporations
• Leading Whigs were prosecuted or fled abroad

The Rye House Plot (1683):

• Allegations emerged of a plot to assassinate Charles and James
• Several Whig leaders were implicated, including Lord Russell and Algernon Sidney, who were executed
• The Earl of Essex died in the Tower, probably by suicide
• Shaftesbury had already fled to Holland, where he died in 1683
• The Duke of Monmouth was exiled but later returned to lead a rebellion in 1685

Charles's death and legacy:

• Charles died in February 1685, reportedly converting to Catholicism on his deathbed
• He had no legitimate children, though he acknowledged at least 14 illegitimate offspring
• James succeeded peacefully despite the Exclusion Crisis
• Charles had restored monarchical stability but left unresolved religious and constitutional tensions
• His political skill and flexibility had prevented another civil war

Society and culture during the Restoration

The Restoration period witnessed significant social and cultural developments alongside political tensions.

Court culture:

• Charles's court was known for its French-influenced sophistication and licentiousness
• The king kept numerous mistresses, including Barbara Villiers and Nell Gwyn
• Theatre reopened after the Puritan closure, with women performing on stage for the first time
• Coffee houses became centres of political discussion and news circulation

Science and learning:

• The Royal Society received its charter in 1662, promoting experimental science
• Notable members included Robert Boyle, Robert Hooke, Isaac Newton, and Christopher Wren
• The Great Fire of London (1666) enabled Wren's architectural transformation of the city
• The period saw advances in medicine, astronomy, mathematics, and natural philosophy

Economic developments:

• Trade expanded, particularly with the Caribbean and North American colonies
• The Navigation Acts promoted English shipping and commerce
• London dominated English economic life, especially after the Great Fire's rebuilding
• Social hierarchy remained rigid, with the landed gentry controlling political power

Worked examples

Example 1: Explain why Charles II faced difficulties with Parliament over religion (12 marks)

Strong answer approach:

Charles faced religious difficulties with Parliament for several interconnected reasons. Firstly, Charles's personal inclination towards religious toleration conflicted with Parliament's determination to enforce Anglican conformity. His 1672 Declaration of Indulgence attempted to suspend the penal laws against Catholics and Dissenters, but the strongly Anglican Cavalier Parliament forced him to withdraw it in 1673, demonstrating Parliament's power over religious policy. This revealed fundamental disagreement about whether the king could suspend laws without parliamentary consent.

Secondly, fears about Charles's Catholic sympathies created suspicion. His marriage to the Portuguese Catholic Catherine of Braganza, his Secret Treaty of Dover with Catholic France (1670), and his brother James's conversion to Catholicism all fuelled Protestant anxieties. Parliament responded with the Test Acts (1673 and 1678), requiring officeholders to take Anglican communion and excluding Catholics from office and Parliament. These laws directly challenged royal prerogative by limiting whom the king could appoint.

Finally, the international context intensified religious tensions. Louis XIV's aggressive Catholic France appeared threatening, and Charles's alliance with France in the Third Dutch War (1672–1674) seemed to prioritise Catholic interests over Protestant ones. When the Popish Plot erupted in 1678, it unleashed anti-Catholic hysteria that Parliament exploited to attack Charles's policies and his Catholic brother's position. The resulting Exclusion Crisis showed how religious fears could threaten the succession itself, creating the greatest political crisis of Charles's reign.

Mark scheme guidance: This answer would score highly because it identifies multiple causes, explains them with specific evidence, and shows links between religious and political conflicts. It demonstrates understanding of both immediate issues and underlying tensions.

Example 2: How far do you agree that Charles II was a successful monarch? (16 marks + 4 SPaG)

Strong answer structure:

Introduction: Charles II's success as monarch can be judged by whether he achieved his key aims: restoring royal authority after the Commonwealth, maintaining religious peace, managing Parliament, and preserving the succession. His record shows both significant achievements and notable failures.

Paragraph 1 - Successes: Charles successfully restored monarchical stability after the unprecedented period of republican rule. He avoided his father's fate by demonstrating political flexibility, compromising when necessary with Parliament, and using patronage and manipulation to manage opposition. He survived the greatest challenges to his authority, including the Dutch raid on the Medway (1667) and particularly the Exclusion Crisis (1678–1681), which threatened the succession itself. By dissolving three Parliaments and mobilising Tory support, he defeated the Exclusion Bills and ensured his brother succeeded peacefully in 1685. His final years saw strengthened royal authority, with remodelled borough charters ensuring loyalist corporations and improved revenues reducing dependence on Parliament.

Paragraph 2 - Limitations: However, Charles faced significant limitations and failures. He never achieved financial independence from Parliament, despite the promised £1.2 million annual income, forcing him to accept parliamentary interference in policy. His preference for religious toleration was repeatedly blocked by Parliament, and he had to accept the Clarendon Code's persecution of Dissenters. His foreign policy ambitions, particularly alliance with France, proved unpopular and unsustainable. The Popish Plot revealed how fragile religious peace remained, with 35 Catholics executed on fabricated evidence while he was powerless to prevent the hysteria. He produced no legitimate heir, creating a succession crisis.

Conclusion with judgement: Overall, Charles II was moderately successful. His greatest achievement was restoring and maintaining monarchical stability, avoiding civil war despite profound religious and political divisions. His flexibility and political skill were considerable assets. However, he failed to achieve genuine religious toleration, financial independence, or resolution of the Catholic succession issue. These unresolved tensions would erupt in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, suggesting his success was more in postponing problems than solving them. Nevertheless, given the challenges he inherited in 1660, restoring effective monarchy and dying peacefully in his bed represented significant success compared to his father's fate.

Mark scheme guidance: This demonstrates sustained analysis, uses specific knowledge to support arguments, reaches a substantiated judgement, and considers both sides before concluding. Strong answers avoid simple "yes/no" responses and instead weigh evidence carefully.

Common mistakes and how to avoid them

• Confusing the two Declarations of Indulgence (1662 and 1672) or conflating them with the Declaration of Breda (1660). Remember: Breda = terms of Restoration; the Indulgences = failed attempts at religious toleration during his reign.

• Treating "Puritans," "Dissenters," and "Nonconformists" as different groups. These terms are largely interchangeable for Protestants who refused to conform to the Church of England after 1662, though "Puritan" became less common after the Restoration.

• Assuming Charles II was Catholic throughout his reign. While he may have had Catholic sympathies and reportedly converted on his deathbed, he outwardly conformed to Anglicanism throughout his reign. His brother James openly converted, which was the problem.

• Forgetting to explain causation and consequence. Don't just list events chronologically. AQA questions require you to explain why things happened and what resulted, showing connections between events.

• Neglecting the international context. England's religious and political conflicts cannot be understood without reference to Catholic France, the Dutch Wars, and European power struggles.

• Writing that the Popish Plot was real. Always make clear it was fabricated by Titus Oates, though many contemporaries believed it. Examiners expect you to distinguish historical reality from contemporary belief.

Exam technique for "Restoration England, 1660–1685"

• Identify command words precisely. "Explain why" requires causes with supporting evidence (12 marks). "How far" or "How convincing" requires sustained judgement weighing evidence on both sides (16 marks + 4 SPaG). "Write an account" requires narrative analysis showing how events unfolded and connected (8 marks).

• Use the mark tariffs as time guides. Roughly one mark per minute: spend 12 minutes on 12-mark questions, 20 minutes on 16+4 questions. Leave time to check spelling, punctuation, and grammar on the 16+4 question as 4 marks depend on technical accuracy.

• Develop points with specific supporting evidence. Each analytical point needs concrete examples: names, dates, legislation, events. Vague generalizations like "people were worried about Catholics" score poorly; "Parliament passed the Test Act in 1673, requiring officeholders to take Anglican communion, which forced James to resign as Lord High Admiral" demonstrates precise knowledge.

• For 16-mark questions, reach a substantiated judgement. The highest marks require you to weigh different factors or interpretations and reach a supported conclusion. Avoid sitting on the fence—take a position but acknowledge complexity.

Quick revision summary

The Restoration (1660) returned Charles II to the throne after republican rule. Despite promises of toleration, the Cavalier Parliament imposed the Clarendon Code restricting Dissenters. Charles's Catholic sympathies and French alliance conflicted with Protestant Parliament's wishes. The fabricated Popish Plot (1678) triggered the Exclusion Crisis (1678–1681) as Whigs attempted to bar Catholic James from succession, opposed by Tories defending hereditary right. Charles defeated Exclusion by dissolving Parliament and mobilising Tory support. He ruled without Parliament 1681–1685, dying peacefully with James succeeding, though unresolved religious tensions would lead to the 1688 Glorious Revolution.