What you'll learn
This revision guide covers Theme 1: Population and Settlement for CIE IGCSE Geography. You'll master population distribution and density, demographic transition, migration patterns, urbanisation processes, and settlement hierarchies. These notes align precisely with the CIE specification and prepare you for both Paper 1 and Paper 4 questions.
Key terms and definitions
Population density — the average number of people per square kilometre, calculated by dividing total population by total land area
Birth rate — the number of live births per 1,000 people per year
Death rate — the number of deaths per 1,000 people per year
Natural increase — the difference between birth rate and death rate, expressed as a percentage
Migration — the movement of people from one permanent home to another, either within a country (internal) or between countries (international)
Urbanisation — the increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas compared to rural areas
Population pyramid — a graph showing the age and sex structure of a population, with males on the left and females on the right
Settlement hierarchy — the organisation of settlements according to size, population and range of services, from isolated dwelling to megacity
Core concepts
Population distribution and density
Population distribution refers to how people are spread across the Earth's surface. It is uneven due to physical and human factors.
Factors affecting population distribution:
Physical factors:
- Climate — extreme temperatures (Sahara Desert, Antarctica) discourage settlement
- Relief — flat, low-lying land is easier to build on than steep mountains
- Resources — areas with fertile soil, water supplies and minerals attract people
- Natural hazards — earthquake zones, flood plains and volcanic areas often have lower densities
Human factors:
- Economic opportunities — cities and industrial regions attract workers
- Political factors — war zones experience population decline
- Infrastructure — areas with good transport and services attract settlement
- Historical factors — colonial ports and trading posts often became major cities
Calculating population density:
Population density = Total population ÷ Total land area (km²)
Densely populated areas include Bangladesh (1,265 people/km²), the UK (275 people/km²), and Java, Indonesia. Sparsely populated areas include Mongolia (2 people/km²), Namibia, and Northern Canada.
Population structure and demographic transition
Population pyramids show five key structures:
- High birth rate, high death rate — wide base, narrow top (Stage 1)
- High birth rate, falling death rate — very wide base, expanding rapidly (Stage 2: Kenya, Nigeria)
- Falling birth rate, low death rate — narrowing base (Stage 3: Brazil, Mexico)
- Low birth rate, low death rate — narrow base, rectangular shape (Stage 4: UK, USA)
- Very low birth rate, ageing population — inverted shape, narrow base (Stage 5: Japan, Germany)
The Demographic Transition Model (DTM) explains population change over time:
Stage 1 — High fluctuating (pre-industrial societies)
- High birth rate (no family planning, children needed for labour)
- High death rate (disease, famine, poor healthcare)
- Low total population
Stage 2 — Early expanding (LICs undergoing development)
- High birth rate (cultural traditions continue)
- Rapidly falling death rate (improved healthcare, sanitation, food supply)
- Rapid population growth
- Examples: Afghanistan, rural parts of Sub-Saharan Africa
Stage 3 — Late expanding (NICs)
- Falling birth rate (contraception available, education, women working)
- Low death rate (modern healthcare)
- Slowing population growth
- Examples: India, Indonesia, Egypt
Stage 4 — Low fluctuating (HICs)
- Low birth rate (expensive to raise children, focus on careers)
- Low death rate (excellent healthcare)
- Stable or slow growth
- Examples: UK, USA, France
Stage 5 — Declining (some HICs)
- Very low birth rate (below replacement level of 2.1 children per woman)
- Ageing population
- Natural decrease possible
- Examples: Japan, Italy, Germany
Population challenges
Overpopulation occurs when there are too many people for available resources. Consequences include:
- Food shortages and malnutrition
- Housing shortages leading to slums
- Unemployment and underemployment
- Strain on healthcare and education systems
- Environmental degradation (deforestation, pollution)
Underpopulation occurs when there are too few people to fully utilise resources. Consequences include:
- Labour shortages
- Ageing dependency ratio (fewer workers supporting pensioners)
- Services becoming uneconomical in rural areas
- Difficulty defending borders
China's One-Child Policy (1979-2015):
- Measures: fines for additional children, compulsory contraception, benefits for compliance
- Successes: prevented approximately 400 million births, reduced pressure on resources
- Problems: ageing population, gender imbalance (preference for sons), 4-2-1 problem (one child supporting two parents and four grandparents), human rights concerns
France's pro-natalist policies:
- Cash incentives for second and third children
- Subsidised childcare and nurseries
- Generous maternity/paternity leave
- Result: France has highest birth rate in EU (1.8-1.9 children per woman)
Migration
Types of migration:
- International migration — movement between countries
- Internal migration — movement within a country (rural-urban migration is most common)
- Voluntary migration — choice to move for better opportunities
- Forced migration — refugees fleeing persecution, war or natural disasters
Push factors (reasons to leave):
- Unemployment and poverty
- War and conflict
- Natural disasters
- Persecution (political, religious, ethnic)
- Poor services and infrastructure
Pull factors (attractions of destination):
- Job opportunities and higher wages
- Political stability and safety
- Better education and healthcare
- Join family already there
- Pleasant environment
Consequences of migration:
For the origin (country of emigration):
- Positive: remittances sent home, reduced unemployment, skills learned abroad
- Negative: brain drain of educated workers, ageing population, family separation
For the destination (country of immigration):
- Positive: fills labour shortages, cultural diversity, economic growth, migrants pay taxes
- Negative: pressure on services (housing, schools, hospitals), cultural tensions, wage depression in some sectors
Case study: Mexico to USA migration
- Push factors: unemployment, poverty in rural Mexico, drug violence
- Pull factors: higher wages (USA minimum wage = 10× Mexican wages), job opportunities, family connections
- Consequences: remittances support Mexican families, labour for US agriculture and services, border tensions, deportation issues
Case study: Syria to Europe (2015 onwards)
- Push factors: civil war since 2011, persecution, destroyed infrastructure
- Routes: Turkey to Greece, across Mediterranean to Italy
- Consequences: humanitarian crisis, EU disagreements on quotas, integration challenges, rise of anti-immigration politics
Urbanisation
Urbanisation is occurring most rapidly in LICs and NICs:
- 1950: 30% of world population urban
- 2018: 55% urban
- 2050: projected 68% urban
Causes of urbanisation:
Rural push factors:
- Agricultural mechanisation reducing jobs
- Land degradation and desertification
- Poor services (schools, hospitals)
- Natural disasters
Urban pull factors:
- Industrial and service sector jobs
- Better education and healthcare
- Entertainment and amenities
- Perception of better life
Megacities — urban areas with over 10 million inhabitants. Examples include Tokyo (37 million), Delhi (30 million), Shanghai (27 million), Mexico City (22 million), Mumbai (20 million).
Problems of rapid urbanisation in LICs/NICs:
- Informal settlements/squatter settlements/slums with inadequate housing
- Lack of clean water and sanitation (disease spread)
- Insufficient waste disposal (pollution, health hazards)
- Traffic congestion and air pollution
- Unemployment and crime
- Pressure on services
Case study: Mumbai, India
- Population: approximately 20 million
- Growth rate: 2.2% per year
- Dharavi: Asia's largest slum, housing 1 million people in 2.1 km²
- Problems: 1 toilet per 1,000 people in some areas, disease, air pollution, traffic congestion
- Solutions: Slum redevelopment schemes, metro expansion, affordable housing initiatives
Sustainable urban management strategies:
- Site and service schemes: government provides land with water/sewerage, residents build homes
- Self-help schemes: loans and materials for residents to improve homes
- Integrated transport systems: metro, bus rapid transit (BRT), cycling infrastructure
- Waste recycling programmes
- Green spaces and urban forests
- Affordable housing projects
Settlement hierarchies and patterns
Settlement hierarchy ranks settlements by:
- Population size
- Range of services (low-order to high-order)
- Sphere of influence (area served)
From smallest to largest:
- Isolated dwelling — single farm or house
- Hamlet — few houses, no services
- Village — small population, low-order services (post office, primary school, convenience store)
- Town — thousands of inhabitants, middle-order services (secondary schools, supermarkets, banks)
- City — hundreds of thousands, high-order services (universities, specialist hospitals, department stores)
- Conurbation — merged urban areas
- Megacity — over 10 million people
Settlement patterns:
- Dispersed — scattered, isolated buildings (upland farming areas)
- Nucleated — clustered around a central point (village green, crossroads)
- Linear — along a transport route (road, river, coast)
Site and situation:
- Site — the land on which a settlement is built (factors: dry point, wet point, defensive position, bridging point)
- Situation — the location of a settlement in relation to surrounding features (nearby resources, transport routes, other settlements)
Urban land use models:
CBD (Central Business District):
- Highest land values
- Shops, offices, entertainment
- High-rise buildings
- Good transport accessibility
- Low residential population
Inner city:
- Old terraced housing (UK) or tenements
- Some industrial areas
- Lower quality housing
- Multi-ethnic communities
Suburbs:
- Semi-detached and detached housing
- Lower density
- More green space
- Shopping parades
Rural-urban fringe:
- Edge of built-up area
- Mixed land use (housing, retail parks, industrial estates, golf courses)
- Greenfield development sites
Worked examples
Example 1: Interpreting a population pyramid (4 marks)
Study the population pyramid for Country X. Describe the age structure shown. [4]
Answer: The pyramid shows a wide base [1] indicating a high birth rate [1]. There is a narrow top [1] showing that life expectancy is relatively low [1]. This is typical of a Stage 2 country in the DTM with rapid population growth [1]. (Any 4 points)
Examiner note: Always describe specific features (wide base, narrow middle) AND explain what they mean (high birth rate, low life expectancy). Link to DTM stages where appropriate.
Example 2: Explaining migration (6 marks)
Explain the effects of international migration on the destination country. [6]
Answer: International migration brings several economic benefits to the destination country. Migrants fill labour shortages, particularly in sectors like healthcare, construction and hospitality [1]. This supports economic growth and tax revenues [1]. Migrants often take jobs that local workers are unwilling to do, preventing labour market gaps [1].
However, there are also challenges. Rapid immigration can put pressure on services such as schools and hospitals [1], particularly in areas with high concentrations of new arrivals. This can lead to longer waiting times and stretched resources [1]. Additionally, cultural differences can sometimes create social tensions within communities, though this often decreases over time as integration occurs [1].
Examiner note: For 6-mark questions, aim for 3-4 developed points covering both advantages and disadvantages. Use specific examples where possible.
Example 3: Case study question on urbanisation (7 marks)
For a named city in an LIC or NIC you have studied, explain the problems caused by rapid urbanisation. [7]
Answer: Mumbai, India, has experienced rapid urbanisation with a population of approximately 20 million growing at 2.2% annually [1].
A major problem is inadequate housing, with approximately 60% of the population living in slums such as Dharavi [1]. These informal settlements lack basic services, with some areas having only 1 toilet per 1,000 people [1], leading to poor sanitation and the spread of diseases such as cholera and typhoid [1].
Traffic congestion is severe, with average speeds during rush hour as low as 10 km/hour [1]. This contributes to high levels of air pollution, affecting residents' health and productivity [1].
Unemployment and underemployment are widespread as rural-urban migrants cannot find formal sector jobs, forcing many into the informal economy with low wages and no job security [1]. (Any 7 valid points with location-specific detail)
Examiner note: Named examples with specific data score highest. Structure: Name city and country → Problem 1 with detail → Problem 2 with detail → Problem 3 with detail.
Common mistakes and how to avoid them
Confusing population density with population distribution — Density is numerical (people per km²), distribution is the spread of population across an area. Use the correct term.
Mixing up birth/death rates with natural increase — Birth rate and death rate are separate statistics; natural increase is calculated by subtracting death rate from birth rate. Always show this calculation clearly.
Describing pyramids without explaining what features mean — Don't just say "wide base"; explain it indicates high birth rate or young population. Link features to DTM stages.
Writing about migration without distinguishing push and pull factors — Clearly label which factors push people away and which pull them toward destinations. Don't mix them.
Case study responses lacking specific detail — Generic answers like "pollution is a problem" score poorly. Use named cities, statistical data, and specific examples: "Mumbai experiences air pollution with PM2.5 levels exceeding WHO guidelines by 400%."
Confusing site and situation — Site is the physical land itself (wet point, defensive hill); situation is position relative to surroundings (near river crossing, on trade route).
Exam technique for Theme 1: Population and Settlement
Command words matter: "Describe" = say what you see (features, patterns). "Explain" = give reasons why. "Assess/Evaluate" = weigh up advantages and disadvantages, reach a conclusion. "With reference to" = you must use examples.
Case study questions — Learn 2-3 detailed case studies (one LIC/NIC city for urbanisation, one migration flow, one population policy). Include: location, specific statistics, named places within the city/region, named strategies/policies, specific outcomes. Generic answers rarely score above Level 2.
Mark allocation guides time and depth — 1-2 marks = brief point or definition. 3-4 marks = developed explanation with example. 6-7 marks = structured answer with multiple developed points, often requiring both sides of an argument.
Resource-based questions — Extract data from graphs/maps/photos first, then add your own knowledge. Reference specific figures: "The population pyramid shows 35% under age 15" scores better than "lots of young people."
Quick revision summary
Population distribution is uneven globally due to physical factors (climate, relief, resources) and human factors (economic opportunities, politics). The Demographic Transition Model explains population change through five stages, from high birth and death rates to ageing populations. Migration involves push and pull factors affecting both origin and destination regions. Rapid urbanisation in LICs/NICs creates challenges including informal settlements, inadequate services and pollution, requiring sustainable management strategies. Settlements form hierarchies from isolated dwellings to megacities, with different land use patterns from CBD to rural-urban fringe.