Depth Study: The Arab–Israeli Conflict, 1948–94 — CIE IGCSE History Revision Notes

What you'll learn

This depth study examines the complex Arab–Israeli conflict from Israel's creation in 1948 through to the peace processes of the early 1990s. You need to understand the causes and consequences of major wars, the Palestinian refugee crisis, superpower involvement, and attempts at peace-making. The specification requires detailed knowledge of key events, personalities and turning points across nearly five decades of conflict.

Key terms and definitions

Zionism — The political movement advocating for a Jewish homeland in Palestine, strengthened by persecution in Europe and the Holocaust.

Partition — The UN plan (1947) to divide Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states, accepted by Jews but rejected by Arabs.

Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) — Founded 1964, led by Yasser Arafat from 1969, it coordinated Palestinian armed resistance and diplomatic efforts.

Occupied Territories — Areas captured by Israel in 1967: West Bank, Gaza Strip, Golan Heights and Sinai Peninsula (returned to Egypt 1982).

Intifada — Palestinian civilian uprising against Israeli occupation; first Intifada 1987–93 used strikes, boycotts and stone-throwing.

Camp David Accords — 1978 peace agreement between Egypt's Sadat and Israel's Begin, brokered by US President Carter, leading to Egyptian recognition of Israel.

Six Day War — June 1967 conflict where Israel launched pre-emptive strikes, defeating Egypt, Syria and Jordan in six days and tripling its territory.

Oslo Accords — 1993 agreement providing framework for Palestinian self-government in Gaza and Jericho, with mutual Israeli-PLO recognition.

Core concepts

Creation of Israel and the 1948–49 War

The United Nations proposed partition of Palestine in November 1947, allocating 56% to a Jewish state despite Jews comprising only one-third of the population. David Ben-Gurion declared Israeli independence on 14 May 1948, immediately triggering invasion by five Arab armies (Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Iraq, Lebanon).

Causes of the 1948 War:

Arabs rejected partition as unfair, believing Palestinians lost land to European refugees
Neighbouring Arab states felt obligated to support Palestinian Arabs
Jewish determination to defend their new state after Holocaust persecution
British withdrawal created power vacuum

Consequences:

Israel survived and expanded territory to 78% of Palestine
700,000 Palestinian Arabs became refugees in neighbouring countries
Armistice agreements signed 1949, but no formal peace treaties
Egypt controlled Gaza Strip; Jordan annexed West Bank
Palestinians became stateless people, creating long-term humanitarian crisis
Arab humiliation fostered determination for revenge

The Suez Crisis, 1956

Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal in July 1956, previously controlled by Britain and France. Israel, Britain and France secretly coordinated military action, with Israel invading Sinai on 29 October 1956.

Key developments:

Israel achieved swift military victory, reaching Suez Canal within days
Britain and France issued ultimatum then bombed Egyptian airfields
USA and USSR both opposed the invasion at United Nations
International pressure forced Britain, France and Israel to withdraw
UN Emergency Force deployed to supervise withdrawal

Significance:

Nasser emerged as Arab hero despite military defeat
Britain's imperial pretensions exposed as hollow
USA replaced Britain as dominant Western power in Middle East
Israel gained no territory but proved military superiority
Confirmed Cold War superpowers would intervene in regional conflicts

The Six Day War, 1967

Tensions escalated in May 1967 when Nasser demanded UN peacekeepers leave Sinai, blockaded Israeli shipping at Tiran Straits, and mobilized Egyptian forces. Israel launched pre-emptive air strikes on 5 June 1967.

Course of war:

Israeli air force destroyed Egyptian planes on ground in first hours
Israel captured Sinai and Gaza from Egypt in three days
Jordan attacked West Jerusalem; Israel seized West Bank and East Jerusalem
Israel took Golan Heights from Syria on final days

Consequences:

Israel controlled three times previous territory
One million Palestinians now under Israeli military occupation
UN Resolution 242 called for Israeli withdrawal from occupied territories in exchange for Arab recognition
Jerusalem unified under Israeli control (contested internationally)
Arab confidence shattered; Palestinian groups intensified guerrilla warfare
Israel gained strategic depth and buffer zones
Oil-rich Arab states began using petroleum as political weapon

The Yom Kippur War, 1973

Egypt's President Anwar Sadat and Syria's Hafez al-Assad coordinated surprise attack on 6 October 1973 (Jewish holy day Yom Kippur). This war differed fundamentally from 1967.

Military developments:

Egyptian forces crossed Suez Canal, breaching Israeli Bar Lev Line
Syria attacked Golan Heights simultaneously
Initial Arab successes shocked Israel
Israel counter-attacked after recovering; surrounded Egyptian Third Army
Superpower involvement intensified: USSR supported Arabs, USA backed Israel
UN ceasefire imposed 22–24 October after 18 days fighting

Significance:

Restored Arab military pride and dignity after 1967 humiliation
Egypt demonstrated it could challenge Israel militarily
Arab oil embargo caused global economic crisis, increasing Arab leverage
Opened path to diplomacy: Sadat realized military solution impossible
Led directly to 1978–79 Egyptian-Israeli peace process
Showed limitations of Israeli military invincibility

Peace initiatives and the Palestinian question

Camp David Accords (1978) and Egyptian-Israeli Peace Treaty (1979):

President Carter mediated negotiations between Sadat and Prime Minister Menachem Begin
Egypt recognized Israel's right to exist (first Arab state to do so)
Israel returned Sinai Peninsula to Egypt
Framework proposed Palestinian autonomy but left details vague
Sadat assassinated 1981 by Egyptian extremists who opposed peace
Egypt isolated in Arab world but peace treaty endured

PLO activities and Israeli responses:

PLO conducted international terrorism including Munich Olympics massacre (1972)
PLO headquarters moved to Lebanon after expulsion from Jordan (1970)
Israel invaded Lebanon 1982 to destroy PLO bases
Lebanon invasion controversial internationally and within Israel
PLO relocated to Tunis; Arafat turned toward diplomacy

First Intifada (1987–93):

Spontaneous Palestinian uprising in Gaza and West Bank
Civil disobedience, strikes, stone-throwing by youth (not organized PLO attacks)
Harsh Israeli military responses damaged international reputation
Demonstrated Palestinian nationalism existed independently of external Arab states
Hamas emerged as Islamic alternative to secular PLO
Forced both sides to reconsider positions, opening path to Oslo

The Oslo Peace Process, 1993–94

Secret negotiations in Norway produced breakthrough agreement, publicly signed at White House on 13 September 1993.

Key provisions:

Mutual recognition: Israel recognized PLO as representative of Palestinians; PLO recognized Israel's right to exist
Palestinians granted limited self-government in Gaza Strip and Jericho
Palestinian Authority established under Arafat's leadership
Further negotiations planned on Jerusalem, refugees, settlements, borders
Israeli forces to withdraw progressively from Palestinian areas

Reactions and limitations:

Historic handshake between Arafat and Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin
Optimism internationally but skepticism among hardliners both sides
Difficult issues postponed rather than resolved
Jewish settlers and Hamas both opposed agreement
Rabin assassinated 1995 by Israeli extremist opposed to Oslo
Process continued with mixed results through 1990s

Factors affecting the conflict throughout the period

Superpower involvement:

USA consistently supported Israel militarily and diplomatically
USSR supplied arms to Arab states (Egypt until 1972, Syria throughout)
Cold War competition intensified regional tensions
After 1991 USSR collapse, USA became sole external power

Role of oil:

Arab states used oil embargoes (1973) as political weapon
Western dependence on Middle Eastern oil complicated diplomacy
Oil wealth funded Arab military purchases and Palestinian support

Religious dimensions:

Jerusalem holy to Judaism, Islam and Christianity
Jewish religious parties opposed territorial compromise
Islamic fundamentalism grew from 1970s (Iranian Revolution 1979, Hamas 1987)

Refugee problem:

Palestinian refugees central to conflict throughout period
Arab states mostly kept Palestinians in camps rather than integrating them
Palestinian right of return remained unresolved issue

Worked examples

Example 1: Explain why the Six Day War broke out in 1967. [6 marks]

Model answer: The Six Day War occurred due to escalating tensions in May 1967. Nasser demanded UN peacekeepers leave the Sinai Peninsula, removed there since the 1956 Suez Crisis. This threatened Israeli security by removing the buffer between Egyptian forces and Israel. Additionally, Egypt blockaded the Straits of Tiran, preventing Israeli shipping access to the Red Sea, which Israel had declared would be an act of war. Egypt, Syria and Jordan also mobilized their armies and signed a joint defense pact, convincing Israel it faced imminent coordinated attack from three sides. Facing strategic vulnerability and believing Arab attack was inevitable, Israel launched pre-emptive air strikes on 5 June to destroy Egyptian air power before it could be used.

Examiner guidance: This answer provides multiple explained causes (UN withdrawal, blockade, Arab mobilization) with specific supporting evidence. Each cause links clearly to the outbreak of war. For 6 marks, aim for three well-explained causes.

Example 2: How important was US support in ensuring Israel's survival between 1948 and 1973? Explain your answer. [10 marks]

Model answer structure: US support was crucial in several ways. From 1949, America provided substantial economic aid enabling Israel to absorb Jewish immigrants and develop infrastructure. During the 1973 Yom Kippur War, massive US arms airlift replaced Israeli losses and enabled counter-offensive against Egypt. American diplomatic protection at the United Nations repeatedly vetoed Security Council resolutions critical of Israel. However, other factors also ensured survival. Israeli military effectiveness proved decisive in 1948, 1967 and 1973, with superior training and tactics overcoming numerical Arab advantages. The divided Arab states never effectively coordinated action; Egypt and Jordan pursued separate interests. Holocaust memory created international sympathy, particularly in Europe. Jewish diaspora, especially American Jews, provided private financial support independent of US government. Overall, while US support was highly important, Israel's survival depended on combination of American backing, military competence, Arab disunity and international sympathy.

Examiner guidance: For 10-mark questions, present a balanced argument. Discuss the stated factor in detail, then consider alternative factors, before reaching a reasoned judgment. Use specific evidence throughout.

Example 3: Describe the events of the First Intifada. [4 marks]

Model answer: The First Intifada began in December 1987 in Gaza Strip and spread to West Bank. Palestinians, particularly youth, engaged in civil disobedience including strikes, boycotts of Israeli products, and stone-throwing at Israeli soldiers. The uprising was largely spontaneous rather than organized by the PLO leadership in Tunis. Israel responded with harsh military measures including curfews, mass arrests and deportations. The Intifada continued until 1993 Oslo Accords.

Examiner guidance: For 4-mark descriptive questions, provide specific factual details covering what happened. Aim for four distinct points with supporting detail.

Common mistakes and how to avoid them

Confusing the wars: Keep 1948, 1956, 1967 and 1973 wars distinct. Create a timeline noting each war's causes, events and consequences separately.
Oversimplifying as "Arabs vs Israel": Recognize complexity. Egypt made peace in 1979; Jordan pursued different policies from Syria; Palestinians had distinct interests from Arab states. Avoid treating "Arabs" as monolithic.
Neglecting the Palestinian dimension: Don't focus exclusively on Arab-Israeli state conflicts. The PLO, refugee problem and Palestinian nationalism are central throughout, especially post-1967.
Ignoring chronological development: The conflict evolved significantly over 46 years. Israel's position strengthened militarily; Arab strategy shifted from military confrontation to diplomatic pressure; Palestinian tactics changed from terrorism to Intifada to Oslo negotiations.
Failing to support claims with evidence: Never write "Israel won quickly" – specify "Israel destroyed the Egyptian air force in three hours on 5 June 1967." Use dates, names, places and numbers.
Not addressing the question: If asked about causes, don't describe events. If asked about consequences, don't explain causes. Underline the command word and address it precisely.

Exam technique for "Depth Study: The Arab–Israeli Conflict, 1948–94"

Master command words: "Describe" = what happened (4 marks); "Explain why" = causes with reasoning (6 marks); "How important/far do you agree" = analytical essay with judgment (10 marks). Each requires different approach and depth.
Use specific evidence: Replace vague statements with precise facts. Instead of "tensions increased," write "Nasser blockaded the Straits of Tiran in May 1967." Examiners reward detailed, accurate knowledge.
Create causal chains for explanation questions: Don't just list causes. Show how each factor led to the outcome: "The UN partition gave 56% of land to Jews who were only one-third of the population → Arabs viewed this as unjust → therefore rejected partition and attacked Israel in 1948."
Plan 10-mark answers: Spend 2-3 minutes planning structure before writing. Introduction stating argument, 3-4 analytical paragraphs with evidence, conclusion with judgment. Balance different factors or viewpoints to reach Levels 4-5.

Quick revision summary

The Arab–Israeli conflict 1948–94 involved four major wars (1948, 1956, 1967, 1973), with Israel militarily dominant but unable to achieve permanent peace. The Six Day War 1967 transformed the conflict by creating occupied territories and Palestinian resistance movements. Egyptian-Israeli peace 1979 broke Arab unity. The First Intifada 1987 demonstrated Palestinian determination, leading to Oslo Accords 1993 offering framework for peace. Throughout, superpower involvement, oil politics, religious claims and the Palestinian refugee crisis complicated resolution. Key figures include Ben-Gurion, Nasser, Sadat, Begin, Arafat and Rabin.