Sunni and Shi'a Islam: beliefs and practices

What you'll learn

This revision guide covers the split between Sunni and Shi'a Islam, the two major denominations within the Muslim faith. You will learn about the historical origins of the division, the contrasting beliefs about leadership and authority, and how these differences manifest in religious practices. This topic is essential for understanding diversity within Islam and is regularly tested in CIE IGCSE Religious Studies papers.

Key terms and definitions

Sunni — the largest branch of Islam (approximately 85-90% of Muslims), who believe the community should select the caliph and follow the Sunnah (example) of Muhammad and consensus of scholars.

Shi'a — the second-largest branch of Islam (approximately 10-15% of Muslims), who believe leadership should remain within Muhammad's family line through Ali and his descendants, the Imams.

Caliph — a successor to Muhammad as political and religious leader of the Muslim community; Sunnis recognise the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, Ali) as "Rightly Guided."

Imam — in Sunni Islam, the prayer leader at a mosque; in Shi'a Islam, one of the divinely-appointed successors of Muhammad from his family line, regarded as infallible spiritual leaders.

Ummah — the worldwide community of Muslims, transcending ethnic and national boundaries.

Ijtihad — independent reasoning in legal and theological matters; Shi'a Muslims place greater emphasis on contemporary ijtihad by qualified scholars.

Ashura — the tenth day of Muharram; for Shi'a Muslims, a major commemoration of the martyrdom of Husayn at Karbala in 680 CE.

Marja — a Shi'a religious authority (literally "source of emulation") whom believers follow for guidance on religious law and practice.

Core concepts

The origins of the Sunni-Shi'a split

The division between Sunni and Shi'a Islam originated immediately after the death of Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE. The disagreement centred on who should succeed Muhammad as leader of the Muslim community:

The Sunni position:

• The community should elect the most qualified leader
• Abu Bakr (Muhammad's close companion and father-in-law) was chosen as the first caliph through consultation among senior companions
• Leadership does not require blood relation to Muhammad
• The first four caliphs (632-661 CE) are all considered legitimate "Rightly Guided Caliphs"

The Shi'a position:

• Muhammad had designated Ali (his cousin and son-in-law) as his successor
• They point to events such as Ghadir Khumm where Muhammad declared "For whoever I am his leader, Ali is his leader"
• Leadership should remain within the Prophet's family (Ahl al-Bayt)
• The first three caliphs were not the rightful leaders

The Battle of Karbala (680 CE): This event solidified the split permanently. Husayn, the grandson of Muhammad and son of Ali, refused to pledge allegiance to the Umayyad caliph Yazid. Husayn and his small band of followers were massacred at Karbala (in modern Iraq). For Shi'a Muslims, this represents the ultimate sacrifice for justice against tyranny and is commemorated annually during Ashura with intense emotion and mourning rituals.

Authority and religious leadership

Sunni authority structure:

• No formal clergy or priesthood
• Religious scholars (ulama) interpret Islamic law through study of Qur'an, Hadith, and legal precedent
• Four major schools of legal thought (madhabs): Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali
• Consensus (ijma) of scholars carries significant weight
• Local imams lead prayers and provide religious guidance but have no special spiritual status

Shi'a authority structure:

• Belief in Twelve Imams (in Twelver Shi'ism, the largest Shi'a group) who are divinely appointed and infallible
• The Twelfth Imam (Muhammad al-Mahdi) went into occultation (hiding) and will return as the Mahdi to establish justice
• During the occultation, senior scholars (ayatollahs and marjas) provide authoritative guidance
• Higher degree of religious hierarchy than in Sunni Islam
• Believers choose a living marja to follow for detailed religious rulings

Key theological differences

Nature of the Imams:

• Sunnis view all early Muslim leaders as human beings capable of error
• Shi'as believe the Twelve Imams possessed special knowledge and were protected from sin and error (ismah)
• Shi'a theology places the Imams as essential intermediaries for understanding faith

Sources of authority:

• Both groups accept the Qur'an as the primary source
• Sunnis rely on the six canonical Hadith collections, particularly Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim
• Shi'as have their own Hadith collections, including Al-Kafi, which contain sayings from the Imams as well as Muhammad
• Shi'as place more emphasis on reason and interpretation by qualified scholars

Doctrine of the Mahdi:

• Sunnis believe the Mahdi will appear before the Day of Judgement but is not yet born
• Shi'as (Twelvers) believe the Twelfth Imam is already alive, in occultation, and will return as the Mahdi

Differences in religious practices

Prayer (Salah):

• Sunnis pray five times daily with hands folded
• Shi'as combine some prayers, resulting in three prayer times (though still performing five prayers)
• Shi'as pray with arms at sides
• Shi'as place a small clay tablet (turbah) from Karbala on the ground for prostration

Call to prayer (Adhan):

• Sunni version contains standard phrases
• Shi'a version adds "Come to the best of deeds" and may include "Ali is the friend of God"

Friday prayers:

• Sunnis consider Friday prayers obligatory
• Some Shi'as consider them optional during the occultation of the Twelfth Imam

Temporary marriage (Mut'ah):

• Permitted in Shi'a Islam for a fixed period with specific conditions
• Forbidden in Sunni Islam

Commemorative practices and festivals

Common festivals: Both groups celebrate:

• Eid al-Fitr (end of Ramadan)
• Eid al-Adha (Festival of Sacrifice)
• Ramadan fasting
• Hajj pilgrimage

Distinctive Shi'a observances:

Ashura (10th Muharram):

• Intense mourning for Husayn's martyrdom at Karbala
• Passion plays (ta'ziyah) reenacting the events of Karbala
• Processions with chest-beating and self-flagellation (in some communities)
• Recitation of elegies and lamentations

Arba'een:

• Forty days after Ashura, marking the end of the mourning period
• Millions make pilgrimage to Karbala (one of the world's largest annual gatherings)

Birthday of Imam Ali:

• Celebrated as a major festival with special prayers and gatherings

Sunni distinctive practices:

• Greater emphasis on the birthdays of the four Rightly Guided Caliphs
• Mawlid (Muhammad's birthday) often celebrated more elaborately, though some conservative Sunnis reject this as innovation

Pilgrimage and sacred sites

Common pilgrimage: Both perform Hajj to Makkah as the Fifth Pillar, though minor ritual differences exist.

Distinctive pilgrimage sites:

Shi'a holy cities:

• Najaf (Iraq): shrine of Imam Ali
• Karbala (Iraq): shrine of Imam Husayn
• Mashhad (Iran): shrine of Imam Reza
• Qom (Iran): shrine of Fatima al-Masuma
• Pilgrimage to these sites (ziyarah) is highly meritorious

Sunni holy cities:

• Madinah: Prophet's mosque and burial place
• Jerusalem: Al-Aqsa mosque
• Conservative Sunnis discourage shrine visitation as potentially leading to shirk (associating partners with Allah)

Worked examples

Example 1: Short answer question

Question: Describe two differences between Sunni and Shi'a beliefs about religious authority. [4 marks]

Model answer: One difference is that Sunni Muslims believe religious authority comes from scholarly consensus and interpretation of the Qur'an and Hadith by the ulama, whereas Shi'a Muslims believe in divinely-appointed Imams who possess special knowledge and are infallible (2 marks). Another difference is that Sunnis do not have a formal religious hierarchy, while Shi'as follow a structured system with ayatollahs and marjas who provide authoritative rulings during the occultation of the Twelfth Imam (2 marks).

Mark scheme guidance:

• 1 mark for identifying a difference
• 1 additional mark for development/explanation
• Repeat for second difference

Example 2: Explanation question

Question: Explain why the Battle of Karbala is particularly significant for Shi'a Muslims. [6 marks]

Model answer: The Battle of Karbala in 680 CE is significant for Shi'a Muslims because it represents the martyrdom of Husayn, the grandson of Prophet Muhammad, who refused to pledge allegiance to the Umayyad caliph Yazid whom he considered unjust. Husayn's willingness to sacrifice himself and his small group of followers rather than submit to tyranny embodies the Shi'a values of standing up for justice even in the face of overwhelming opposition.

The event solidified the permanent split between Sunni and Shi'a communities and became central to Shi'a identity. It is commemorated annually during Ashura with intense mourning rituals, processions, and passion plays that keep the memory alive. For Shi'a Muslims, Karbala demonstrates the suffering of the Prophet's family and the importance of the Imams, reinforcing their belief that leadership should have remained with Muhammad's descendants. The message of Karbala—choosing martyrdom over compromise with injustice—continues to inspire Shi'a Muslims in facing oppression.

Mark scheme guidance:

• Award 1 mark for each point made
• Award further marks for development of points
• Maximum 6 marks
• Expect three developed points

Example 3: Evaluation question

Question: "The differences between Sunni and Shi'a Muslims are more about practice than belief." Discuss this statement. You should include different, supported points of view and a personal viewpoint. You must refer to Islam in your answer. [12 marks]

Model answer: Some Muslims would agree with this statement because both Sunni and Shi'a Muslims share fundamental Islamic beliefs including Tawhid (oneness of Allah), prophethood of Muhammad, the Qur'an as God's word, and core practices like Salah, Zakah, Sawm, and Hajj. Both groups follow the Five Pillars and accept the same theological foundations. The practical differences, such as how Shi'as combine prayer times or use a turbah during prostration, might seem more visible than doctrinal differences. Additionally, both groups emphasise the importance of the ummah and living according to Islamic principles.

However, others would disagree and argue that significant theological differences exist. The nature and role of the Imams represents a major belief difference—Shi'as believe the Twelve Imams were divinely appointed and infallible, possessing special spiritual knowledge, whereas Sunnis reject this entirely. The question of rightful succession after Muhammad reflects fundamentally different understandings of how Allah intended the community to be led. Furthermore, the sources of religious authority differ, with Shi'as accepting Hadith from the Imams alongside those from Muhammad, and placing greater weight on interpretation by contemporary marjas. These belief differences then naturally result in different practices.

In my view, while both groups share Islam's core creed, the theological differences about authority, leadership, and the status of the Imams are substantial and not merely superficial. These beliefs fundamentally shape how each community understands God's plan for Islam after Muhammad's death. The practical differences flow from these deeper theological disagreements. However, it's important to recognise that Sunni and Shi'a Muslims have more in common with each other than differences, and throughout history have often lived together peacefully, united by their shared faith in Allah and Muhammad as His messenger.

Mark scheme guidance:

• Level 4 (10-12 marks): A well-argued response, with evidence of reasoned consideration of different points of view. Must include personal viewpoint. Appropriate reference to religious sources.
• Level 3 (7-9 marks): A structured response with different points of view. May lack balance or development.
• Level 2 (4-6 marks): A simple response with limited development.
• Level 1 (1-3 marks): A basic statement of opinion with little or no justification.

Common mistakes and how to avoid them

• Oversimplifying the division as purely political: While succession was the catalyst, genuine theological differences developed. Always explain both the historical origins and the doctrinal consequences in your answers.

• Treating Shi'a as a small, marginal group: Approximately 10-15% of the world's 1.8+ billion Muslims are Shi'a—this represents over 150 million people. Acknowledge both groups as significant parts of the ummah.

• Confusing the term "Imam": Remember that this word means different things in each tradition. In Sunni contexts, it refers to a prayer leader; in Shi'a contexts, it refers to one of the twelve divinely-appointed successors of Muhammad. Make your usage clear.

• Exaggerating conflict: While differences exist and historical conflicts occurred, millions of Sunni and Shi'a Muslims live peacefully together. Avoid presenting the relationship as inherently violent or irreconcilable.

• Providing lists without explanation: In exam answers worth 4+ marks, don't just list differences. Explain each point with reference to beliefs, scripture, or historical events to access higher mark bands.

• Ignoring diversity within each branch: Both Sunni and Shi'a Islam contain further subdivisions and diverse interpretations. Phrases like "most Sunnis believe" or "in Twelver Shi'ism" show sophisticated understanding.

Exam technique for "Sunni and Shi'a Islam: beliefs and practices"

• Command word awareness: "Describe" requires factual information (2 marks per developed point). "Explain" requires reasons and analysis (typically 6 marks total). "Discuss" or "Evaluate" requires multiple viewpoints and your own reasoned conclusion (12 marks with levels marking).

• Use specific examples: Reference actual events (Karbala, Ghadir Khumm), specific practices (turbah, Ashura mourning), and named figures (the Twelve Imams, the four Rightly Guided Caliphs) to demonstrate detailed knowledge.

• Balance and fairness: In evaluation questions, present both Sunni and Shi'a perspectives respectfully. The examiner rewards understanding of different Muslim viewpoints, not bias toward one group.

• Link beliefs to practices: Show how theological differences (belief in Imams' infallibility) lead to practical differences (following a marja's rulings). This analytical approach accesses higher marks in explanation and evaluation questions.

Quick revision summary

The Sunni-Shi'a split originated in 632 CE over succession after Muhammad's death. Sunnis believe the community should elect leaders and recognise the four Rightly Guided Caliphs. Shi'as believe Ali was Muhammad's designated successor and follow the Twelve Imams as infallible leaders. Key differences include authority structures (scholarly consensus vs. Imams/marjas), prayer methods, and commemorations (especially Ashura mourning for Husayn's martyrdom at Karbala). Despite differences, both groups share fundamental Islamic beliefs in Tawhid, prophethood, and the Five Pillars, forming part of the worldwide ummah.