The origins and history of Judaism — CIE IGCSE Religious Studies Revision Notes

What you'll learn

This revision guide covers the origins and historical development of Judaism, focusing on key figures, events and texts that shaped the Jewish faith. You'll explore Abraham's covenant with God, the Exodus from Egypt, Moses and the giving of the Torah, and how Judaism evolved through biblical and post-biblical periods. This content is essential for CIE IGCSE Religious Studies Paper 1 questions on Jewish beliefs and practices.

Key terms and definitions

Covenant — A binding agreement between God and the Jewish people, establishing their special relationship and mutual responsibilities

Torah — The first five books of the Hebrew Bible (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy), containing Jewish law and teaching; also means Jewish law and teaching in general

Monotheism — Belief in one God, a central principle of Judaism established by Abraham

Exodus — The departure of the Israelites from slavery in Egypt under Moses' leadership, approximately 1300-1200 BCE

Talmud — A collection of rabbinic discussions and interpretations of Jewish law, compiled between 200-500 CE

Patriarch — A founding father of Judaism; specifically Abraham, Isaac and Jacob

Mitzvot — Commandments or laws given by God; traditionally numbered as 613 in the Torah

Shema — The central Jewish declaration of faith affirming belief in one God, found in Deuteronomy 6:4-9

Core concepts

Abraham and the origins of Judaism

Judaism traces its origins to Abraham, who lived approximately 2000-1800 BCE in Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq). Abraham is considered the first patriarch and the founder of monotheism.

The covenant with Abraham:

God called Abraham to leave his homeland and travel to Canaan (the Promised Land)
God promised Abraham that his descendants would become a great nation
God promised the land of Canaan to Abraham's descendants
Abraham demonstrated faith by obeying God's command
The covenant was sealed through the practice of circumcision (brit milah)
God tested Abraham's faith by commanding him to sacrifice his son Isaac, but provided a ram instead at the last moment

Significance for Judaism:

Established the Jewish people's special relationship with God
Demonstrated that faith requires obedience and trust
Created the concept of the "chosen people" — Jews believe they were chosen by God for a special purpose
Circumcision remains a sign of the covenant for Jewish males today
Abraham's willingness to sacrifice Isaac showed complete devotion to God

The covenant continued through Abraham's son Isaac and grandson Jacob (later renamed Israel). Jacob's twelve sons became the ancestors of the twelve tribes of Israel, forming the foundation of the Jewish nation.

Moses and the Exodus

Moses is the most important prophet in Judaism, leading the Israelites from slavery in Egypt to freedom, approximately 1300-1200 BCE.

Key events of the Exodus narrative:

The Israelites had been enslaved in Egypt for approximately 400 years
Moses was born during a time when Pharaoh ordered all Hebrew baby boys killed
Moses' mother placed him in a basket in the Nile; Pharaoh's daughter found and raised him
As an adult, Moses fled Egypt after killing an Egyptian who was beating a Hebrew slave
God appeared to Moses in the burning bush on Mount Horeb, revealing His name as "I AM WHO I AM" (YHWH)
God commanded Moses to return to Egypt and demand Pharaoh release the Israelites

The Ten Plagues:

Moses confronted Pharaoh with God's demand to "let my people go." When Pharaoh refused, God sent ten plagues upon Egypt:

Water turned to blood
Frogs
Gnats/lice
Flies
Death of livestock
Boils
Hail
Locusts
Darkness
Death of the firstborn

The tenth plague led to the first Passover (Pesach), when God "passed over" Israelite homes marked with lamb's blood, sparing their firstborn. Pharaoh finally released the Israelites, who departed hastily — commemorated today by eating unleavened bread (matzah) during Passover.

Crossing the Red Sea:

Pharaoh changed his mind and pursued the Israelites with his army
God parted the Red Sea (or Sea of Reeds), allowing the Israelites to cross safely
When the Egyptian army followed, the waters returned and drowned them
This miracle demonstrated God's power and commitment to His covenant people

Importance of the Exodus:

Central to Jewish identity — remembered in prayers, festivals and rituals
Demonstrates God as liberator and redeemer
Shows God's faithfulness to His covenant promises
Forms the basis of the Passover festival, one of the most important Jewish celebrations
Establishes Moses as the greatest prophet and lawgiver

The giving of the Torah at Mount Sinai

Three months after leaving Egypt, the Israelites camped at Mount Sinai (also called Mount Horeb), where the most significant event in Jewish history occurred.

Receiving the Ten Commandments:

God summoned Moses to the top of Mount Sinai
God revealed the Ten Commandments (Aseret ha-Dibrot) directly to Moses
The mountain was covered in smoke and fire, with thunder and lightning
The people witnessed this theophany (appearance of God) but were afraid
Moses spent 40 days and nights on the mountain receiving God's laws
God inscribed the commandments on two stone tablets

The Ten Commandments establish:

Belief in one God who brought Israel out of Egypt
No worship of idols or other gods
Not taking God's name in vain
Keeping the Sabbath day holy
Honouring parents
Not murdering
Not committing adultery
Not stealing
Not bearing false witness
Not coveting

The broader Torah:

Beyond the Ten Commandments, God revealed 613 mitzvot (commandments) in total
These cover ethical behaviour, ritual practices, dietary laws, and social justice
The Torah provides a complete way of life for Jews
It includes both laws (halakhah) and narrative stories

The golden calf incident:

While Moses was on the mountain, the people grew impatient
They persuaded Aaron to create a golden calf to worship
This violated the covenant and the first two commandments
Moses destroyed the golden calf and the original tablets in anger
God threatened to destroy the people but Moses interceded
God eventually forgave the people and renewed the covenant
Moses received new tablets with the commandments

Significance of Sinai:

Established the covenant relationship between God and all Israel
Provided the foundation of Jewish law and ethics
Made the Torah central to Jewish identity and practice
Created obligations for the Jewish people to follow God's laws
Showed that Jewish faith requires both belief and ethical action

The journey to the Promised Land

After receiving the Torah, the Israelites journeyed through the wilderness toward Canaan, the Promised Land.

The wilderness period:

Lasted approximately 40 years according to biblical tradition
God provided manna (bread from heaven) and quail for food
Water came miraculously from rocks
A pillar of cloud led them by day and a pillar of fire by night
The Tabernacle (portable sanctuary) housed the Ark of the Covenant containing the Ten Commandments
The generation that left Egypt (except Joshua and Caleb) died in the wilderness due to their lack of faith

Entering Canaan:

Moses died before entering the Promised Land, viewing it from Mount Nebo
Joshua became the new leader and led the conquest of Canaan
The crossing of the Jordan River mirrored the Red Sea crossing
The Israelites gradually settled the land, divided among the twelve tribes
This fulfilled God's promise to Abraham centuries earlier

Development of the Hebrew Bible

The Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) consists of three sections:

Torah (Law):

The five books of Moses (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy)
Also called the Pentateuch or Chumash
Considered the most sacred and authoritative texts in Judaism

Nevi'im (Prophets):

Former Prophets: Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings — historical narratives
Latter Prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve minor prophets
Prophets called the people back to covenant faithfulness and social justice
Predicted exile, punishment, and eventual restoration

Ketuvim (Writings):

Psalms, Proverbs, Job, and other wisdom literature
Five scrolls (Megillot): Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther
Historical books like Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah

The canon (accepted books) was largely established by the 2nd century CE, though debates continued about some books.

The Babylonian Exile and return

The Exile (586-538 BCE):

The Kingdom of Judah was conquered by the Babylonian Empire under Nebuchadnezzar
The First Temple in Jerusalem was destroyed in 586 BCE
Many Jews were taken as captives to Babylon
This crisis challenged Jewish faith — how could God allow this?
Prophets like Jeremiah and Ezekiel interpreted the exile as punishment for breaking the covenant
Judaism adapted: without the Temple, synagogues emerged as places for prayer and study

The Return:

Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylon in 539 BCE
He issued a decree allowing Jews to return to Jerusalem
The Second Temple was completed in 516 BCE
Ezra the scribe re-established Torah observance
Nehemiah rebuilt Jerusalem's walls
This period saw increased emphasis on Torah study and written law

Post-biblical development: The Oral Torah and Talmud

After the biblical period, Judaism continued to develop through rabbinic interpretation.

The Oral Torah:

Jews believe God gave Moses both written Torah (Scripture) and oral Torah (interpretations and explanations)
The oral traditions were passed down through generations of teachers (rabbis)
These interpretations applied biblical laws to new situations and contexts

The Mishnah (200 CE):

Rabbi Judah ha-Nasi compiled oral traditions into written form
Organized into six orders covering agriculture, festivals, women and family, damages, holy things, and purity
Became the foundation for further rabbinic discussion

The Talmud (completed c. 500 CE):

Two versions: Jerusalem Talmud (c. 400 CE) and Babylonian Talmud (c. 500 CE)
Consists of Mishnah plus Gemara (rabbinic commentary and discussion)
The Babylonian Talmud became the more authoritative version
Contains legal discussions, stories, ethics, and theology
Remains central to Orthodox Jewish study and practice today

Significance:

Shows Judaism as a living, evolving tradition
Demonstrates the importance of interpretation and application
Established the authority of rabbis as teachers and interpreters
Created a methodology for addressing new ethical and practical questions

Worked examples

Example 1: Part (a) question — 4 marks

Question: Describe the covenant God made with Abraham.

Answer: God made a covenant with Abraham when He called him to leave Mesopotamia and travel to Canaan. God promised that Abraham's descendants would become a great nation and that He would give them the land of Canaan as their possession. In return, Abraham and his descendants were to worship God alone and obey His commands. The sign of this covenant was circumcision, which Abraham performed on himself and all the males in his household. This covenant established the special relationship between God and the Jewish people.

Mark scheme guidance: 4 marks for a developed answer showing knowledge of the covenant's terms (promises and obligations), the sign of circumcision, and the significance of the relationship established. Award marks for accurate details and clear explanation.

Example 2: Part (b) question — 6 marks

Question: Explain the importance of Moses in Jewish history.

Answer: Moses is the most important prophet in Judaism for several reasons. Firstly, he led the Israelites out of slavery in Egypt during the Exodus, demonstrating God's power and fulfilling His covenant promise to free His people. This event is central to Jewish identity and is remembered in the Passover festival celebrated annually.

Secondly, Moses received the Torah from God at Mount Sinai, including the Ten Commandments and the 613 mitzvot. This made him the lawgiver and established the foundation of Jewish law and practice. The Torah guides every aspect of Jewish life, from worship to ethics to daily conduct.

Thirdly, Moses acted as an intermediary between God and the people, interceding when they sinned (as with the golden calf incident) and showing God's mercy and willingness to forgive. His leadership through 40 years in the wilderness showed faith and devotion despite challenges. Moses therefore established the pattern of covenant relationship, law observance, and faithful leadership that continues to define Judaism.

Mark scheme guidance: Award up to 6 marks for developed explanation showing understanding of Moses' multiple roles and their significance. Look for accurate knowledge (Exodus, giving of Torah, leadership) connected to importance for Jewish faith and practice.

Example 3: Part (c) question — 8 marks

Question: "The Exodus from Egypt is the most important event in Jewish history." Discuss this statement, showing you have considered more than one point of view.

Answer: Many Jews would agree that the Exodus is the most important event in Jewish history. The Exodus demonstrates God's power and His commitment to His covenant people, showing He is a God who liberates the oppressed. This event is remembered in daily prayers, Sabbath blessings, and especially the Passover festival, making it central to Jewish worship and identity. The Exodus proved God's faithfulness to His promises to Abraham and established the pattern of God as redeemer. Without the Exodus, the Israelites would have remained slaves in Egypt and never received the Torah or entered the Promised Land, so it was essential for the formation of the Jewish nation.

However, others might argue that receiving the Torah at Mount Sinai is more important. While the Exodus freed the Israelites physically, the Torah gave them their identity, purpose, and relationship with God. The Torah contains the mitzvot that define Jewish life and practice, making it the foundation of Judaism as a religion rather than just an ethnic group. Jews describe themselves as "people of the Book," showing how central Torah is to their identity. The Torah continues to guide Jewish life today, whereas the Exodus was a one-time historical event.

In conclusion, both events are deeply interconnected — the Exodus led to Sinai, and both together established the Jewish people and their covenant relationship with God. However, I believe the giving of the Torah is slightly more important because it provides lasting guidance and purpose, whereas freedom alone would not have created the Jewish religion and way of life.

Mark scheme guidance: Award marks using levels of response. Look for: knowledge of both Exodus and alternative viewpoint (e.g., Sinai/Torah); developed arguments with reasoning; evaluation that weighs competing views; personal conclusion with justification. Top level (7-8 marks) requires well-developed arguments showing critical engagement with the question.

Common mistakes and how to avoid them

Confusing the covenant with Abraham and the covenant at Sinai — Abraham's covenant involved promises of land and descendants; Sinai's covenant involved receiving the Torah and mitzvot. Be clear which covenant you're discussing and what each established.
Treating Moses and Abraham as the same figure — Abraham is the first patriarch who established monotheism and the covenant; Moses came centuries later and gave the Torah. Know the timeline and distinct roles of each patriarch and prophet.
Writing vague statements without supporting detail — Don't write "Moses was important" without explaining why. Always include specific examples: "Moses received the Ten Commandments at Mount Sinai, which established Jewish law and ethics."
Forgetting to show different viewpoints in evaluation questions — Part (c) questions require you to "discuss" or show "more than one point of view." Always present at least two perspectives before reaching a conclusion, even if you personally agree with one side.
Misunderstanding the relationship between Torah and Talmud — Torah is the written law given at Sinai; Talmud is later rabbinic commentary and interpretation compiled centuries later. They're not the same thing, though Talmud interprets Torah.
Neglecting the continuing significance of events — Don't just describe what happened historically. Explain why events like the Exodus matter for Jewish identity and practice today, such as through Passover celebrations.

Exam technique for "The origins and history of Judaism"

Command words matter: "Describe" (4 marks) requires factual detail; "Explain" (6 marks) needs reasons and connections; "Discuss"/"To what extent"/"Evaluate" (8 marks) requires balanced argument and personal conclusion with justification.
Structure evaluation answers carefully: Use PEEL (Point, Evidence, Explanation, Link) paragraphs. Present one view with supporting evidence, then "However" to introduce an alternative perspective, then conclude with your own reasoned judgment weighing both sides.
Learn specific examples and terminology: Use accurate terms like "covenant," "mitzvot," "Torah," "Exodus," "Sinai." Include specific details like the Ten Plagues, Mount Sinai, or the Babylonian Exile rather than vague generalities.
Connect history to contemporary Jewish practice: Show how historical events like the Exodus relate to modern Jewish life through festivals (Passover), prayers (mentioning the Exodus), and identity. This demonstrates deeper understanding and can boost marks in explanation and evaluation questions.

Quick revision summary

Judaism originated with Abraham's covenant approximately 2000-1800 BCE, establishing monotheism and the chosen people concept. Moses led the Exodus from Egypt (c. 1300-1200 BCE) and received the Torah at Mount Sinai, including the Ten Commandments and 613 mitzvot that govern Jewish life. After 40 years in the wilderness, Joshua led the Israelites into Canaan. The Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) developed over centuries, containing Torah, Prophets, and Writings. Following the Babylonian Exile (586-538 BCE), Judaism adapted with increased emphasis on synagogue worship and Torah study. The Mishnah (200 CE) and Talmud (500 CE) compiled oral traditions, establishing rabbinic Judaism that continues today.