What you'll learn
Glaciated landscapes are the dramatic upland scenery left behind by ice sheets and glaciers that covered much of the UK during the last glacial period. This guide covers what you need for Edexcel GCSE Geography on glaciated landscapes and change: the extent of ice cover in the UK, how glaciers erode, transport and deposit material, the formation of erosional landforms (corries, arêtes, pyramidal peaks, glacial troughs, hanging valleys, truncated spurs and ribbon lakes) and depositional landforms (moraines and drumlins), how glaciated uplands are used today — farming, forestry, tourism, quarrying and water supply — and the conflicts and management that result. The Lake District is used as the main example.
Questions often ask you to explain how a landform formed, to identify landforms from descriptions or map evidence, and to discuss the impacts and management of tourism and other land uses. Sequence and named examples are key.
Key terms and definitions
Glacier — A large mass of ice that moves slowly downhill under its own weight.
Glacial period — A long cold period when ice sheets and glaciers expand.
Plucking — Ice freezes onto rock, then pulls pieces away as it moves.
Abrasion — Rock fragments embedded in the base of a glacier scrape and smooth the rock beneath.
Freeze-thaw weathering — Water in cracks freezes, expands and breaks the rock apart.
Rotational slip — The curved, circular movement of ice within a corrie that deepens its hollow.
Corrie (cirque) — An armchair-shaped hollow on a mountainside where a glacier formed.
Arête — A narrow, knife-edged ridge between two corries.
Pyramidal peak — A sharp mountain peak formed where three or more corries erode back-to-back.
Glacial trough (U-shaped valley) — A steep-sided, flat-floored valley eroded by a glacier.
Hanging valley — A small tributary valley left high above the main glacial trough.
Truncated spur — An interlocking spur that has been cut off by a glacier, leaving a steep cliff.
Ribbon lake — A long, narrow lake in the floor of a glacial trough.
Moraine — Material deposited by a glacier.
Drumlin — An egg-shaped hill of glacial till, streamlined in the direction of ice flow.
Core concepts
Ice cover in the UK
During the last glacial period, which ended around 10,000–12,000 years ago, ice covered most of Scotland, Wales and northern England, reaching as far south as the Midlands at its greatest extent. Earlier, colder glaciations pushed ice further south still, to around the Thames valley. Upland areas such as the Scottish Highlands, Snowdonia and the Lake District were sculpted by glaciers, while lowland areas further south received deposited material. This is why the most dramatic glacial landforms are found in the north and west of Britain.
How glaciers erode, transport and deposit
Glaciers form where snow accumulates faster than it melts, compacting into ice. The ice moves downhill under gravity, partly by basal sliding over meltwater and partly by deforming internally.
Erosion:
- Plucking — meltwater at the base freezes onto rock; as the glacier moves it tears away loosened blocks.
- Abrasion — rocks frozen into the base of the glacier act like sandpaper, scratching (forming striations) and smoothing the bedrock.
- Freeze-thaw weathering on the valley sides supplies loose rock that falls onto and into the glacier.
Transportation: glaciers carry material on their surface (supraglacial), within the ice (englacial) and at the base (subglacial). They can carry anything from fine clay to huge boulders. Bulldozing pushes material ahead of the snout.
Deposition occurs mainly where ice melts, especially at the snout, and as the climate warms and glaciers retreat. Glacial deposits, called till, are unsorted — a mix of sizes — and angular, unlike river deposits.
Erosional landforms
Corries form in hollows on north- or east-facing slopes in the UK, where snow survives longest because of shade:
- Snow accumulates in a hollow and compacts into ice.
- The ice moves in a rotational slip, deepening the hollow by abrasion.
- Plucking steepens the back wall, while freeze-thaw weathering supplies more rock.
- A raised lip forms at the front, where erosion is less.
- When the ice melts, a small lake — a tarn — may fill the hollow. Red Tarn below Helvellyn is a Lake District example.
Arêtes form where two corries erode back-to-back, leaving a narrow ridge. Striding Edge on Helvellyn is a classic example.
Pyramidal peaks form where three or more corries erode back-to-back around a mountain, leaving a sharp peak.
Glacial troughs form as a glacier moves down a former river valley. The river valley was V-shaped with interlocking spurs; the glacier, much more powerful and filling the valley, erodes the sides and floor by plucking and abrasion, creating a U shape with steep sides and a flat floor.
Truncated spurs are the ends of former interlocking spurs, cut off by the glacier to leave steep cliffs along the valley sides.
Hanging valleys form where smaller tributary glaciers joined the main glacier. The smaller glaciers eroded less deeply, so when the ice melted their valleys were left hanging above the main trough, often with waterfalls.
Ribbon lakes form in glacial troughs where the glacier eroded softer rock more deeply, creating a long hollow that filled with water, or where moraine dammed the valley. Windermere and Wastwater are Lake District ribbon lakes.
Depositional landforms
Moraines are ridges or spreads of till:
- lateral moraine along the valley sides, from material that fell onto the glacier's edges;
- medial moraine in the middle of the valley, formed where two glaciers joined and their lateral moraines merged;
- terminal moraine at the furthest point the glacier reached, marking its snout;
- ground moraine spread across the valley floor.
Drumlins are smooth, elongated hills of till, often found in groups ("basket of eggs" landscapes). They are shaped by moving ice, with a steep stoss end facing the direction the ice came from and a gentle, tapering lee end pointing in the direction of ice flow.
Erratics are boulders transported by ice and deposited far from where they originated, often of a different rock type from the local bedrock.
Using glaciated landscapes
Glaciated uplands support many activities:
- Farming — thin soils, steep slopes, high rainfall and a short growing season limit farming mainly to sheep rearing on the fells, with some cattle in valleys.
- Forestry — conifer plantations grow on poor soils and steep slopes.
- Tourism — dramatic scenery attracts millions of visitors for walking, climbing, water sports and sightseeing.
- Quarrying — slate and other rock are extracted.
- Water supply — ribbon lakes and reservoirs store water for nearby cities; for example, Thirlmere supplies water to Manchester.
- Conservation — National Parks protect landscapes and habitats.
The Lake District: impacts of tourism and conflict
The Lake District National Park receives millions of visitors a year, making tourism vital to its economy. Tourism brings jobs, supports shops, pubs and accommodation, and helps fund conservation. However, it also creates:
- footpath erosion, as boots trample vegetation and loosen soil on popular routes such as Helvellyn;
- traffic congestion on narrow roads and parking pressure in honeypot sites such as Bowness and Keswick;
- litter and pollution;
- second homes and holiday lets, which raise house prices beyond what many local people can afford and can leave villages quiet out of season;
- conflicts between land users — for example, walkers and farmers (gates left open, dogs disturbing sheep), speedboats and quieter water users, and quarrying versus conservation.
Managing glaciated upland areas
Management aims to balance economic needs with protecting the landscape:
- Footpath repair — stone pitching and surfacing paths, and guiding walkers away from eroded areas.
- Traffic management — park-and-ride schemes, improved bus services, parking charges and restrictions.
- Speed limits on lakes — a 10 mph limit on Windermere separates high-speed activities from quieter uses.
- Planning controls — restrictions on new building and on second homes, and support for affordable housing for local people.
- Education and visitor centres — encouraging responsible behaviour.
- Sustainable tourism — spreading visitors across the year and across less-visited areas.
Recognising glacial landforms on maps
Ordnance Survey maps show glacial landscapes clearly:
- Corries appear as a semicircle of tightly packed contour lines (steep back wall) around a hollow, often containing a small lake (tarn).
- Arêtes show as a narrow ridge with steep contours on both sides.
- Pyramidal peaks appear as a summit where several steep slopes meet, marked with a spot height.
- Glacial troughs show closely spaced contours on the valley sides and widely spaced contours on a flat valley floor, often with a long, narrow ribbon lake.
- Hanging valleys are shown by small streams with waterfalls dropping into the main valley.
Being able to identify these features, and give grid references for them, is a common skills question.
Worked examples
Example 1: Formation of a corrie
Explain how a corrie is formed. (4 marks)
Answer: Snow collects in a hollow on a north-facing slope and compacts into ice (1). The ice moves in a rotational slip, deepening the hollow by abrasion (1). Plucking steepens the back wall as ice freezes onto rock and pulls it away (1). A rock lip forms at the front, and when the ice melts a tarn may fill the hollow (1).
Example 2: U-shaped valleys
Describe how a glacial trough differs from a river valley and explain why.
Answer: A glacial trough is U-shaped with steep sides and a flat floor, while a river valley is V-shaped with interlocking spurs. The glacier filled the whole valley and eroded its sides and floor by plucking and abrasion, widening and deepening it and cutting off spurs.
Example 3: Tourism conflict
Explain one conflict caused by tourism in a glaciated upland area. (3 marks)
Answer: Large numbers of walkers cause footpath erosion on popular routes (1), damaging vegetation and creating scars on the landscape (1). This conflicts with conservation aims and with farmers whose grazing land is affected (1).
Common mistakes and how to avoid them
- Mixing up arêtes and pyramidal peaks. Arête = two corries, a ridge; pyramidal peak = three or more corries, a peak.
- Saying glaciers "carve" without naming processes. Use plucking and abrasion.
- Confusing glacial and river deposits. Till is unsorted and angular.
- Getting drumlin orientation wrong. The steep end faces the oncoming ice.
- Listing land uses without impacts. Explain effects on people and the environment.
Exam technique for "Glaciated Landscapes and Change"
- Use sequenced explanations for landform formation.
- Refer to named examples such as Helvellyn, Striding Edge, Red Tarn, Windermere and Thirlmere.
- In land-use questions, consider economic, social and environmental effects and different stakeholders.
- In management questions, evaluate effectiveness and give a judgement.
Quick revision summary
- Ice covered much of northern and western Britain in the last glacial period.
- Erosion: plucking, abrasion, freeze-thaw. Transport on, in and under the ice. Deposition of unsorted till.
- Erosional landforms: corries (tarns), arêtes, pyramidal peaks, U-shaped troughs, truncated spurs, hanging valleys, ribbon lakes.
- Depositional landforms: lateral, medial, terminal and ground moraine; drumlins; erratics.
- Uses: sheep farming, forestry, tourism, quarrying, water supply, conservation.
- Lake District: tourism benefits, footpath erosion, congestion, second homes and conflicts; managed by path repair, traffic schemes, lake speed limits and planning controls.