Early Elizabethan England – Edexcel GCSE History Revision Notes

What you'll learn

Early Elizabethan England covers the period 1558-1588, examining Elizabeth I's consolidation of power, religious challenges, plots against her rule, and relations with foreign powers. This topic appears as a British depth study on Edexcel GCSE History Paper 2, worth 32 marks. You must demonstrate knowledge of key individuals, events, and developments, plus the ability to analyse causes, consequences, and interpretations.

Key terms and definitions

Religious Settlement — Elizabeth's 1559 compromise between Catholicism and Protestantism, establishing the Church of England with the Act of Supremacy and Act of Uniformity.

Excommunication — the papal bull Regnans in Excelsis (1570) issued by Pope Pius V, declaring Elizabeth a heretic and releasing Catholics from obedience to her.

Recusants — Catholics who refused to attend Church of England services, facing fines of one shilling per absence from 1559 onwards.

Privy Council — a small group of trusted advisors (typically 19 members) who met daily to advise Elizabeth on policy, including William Cecil (Lord Burghley) and Francis Walsingham.

Patronage — the monarch's system of rewarding loyalty through granting titles, land, monopolies, or positions at court.

Succession crisis — the ongoing problem caused by Elizabeth remaining unmarried with no heir, creating uncertainty and encouraging plots.

Jesuit missionaries — Catholic priests trained abroad (especially at Douai and Rome) who entered England secretly from 1574 onwards to maintain Catholic worship.

Progresses — Elizabeth's summer tours around the country, staying at nobles' houses to display royal power and maintain loyalty without the cost of a permanent palace.

Core concepts

Elizabeth's accession and early challenges (1558-1569)

Elizabeth became queen on 17 November 1558 aged 25, inheriting a kingdom weakened by religious division, war with France, and financial problems. Her legitimacy was questioned by Catholics who viewed her as illegitimate (Henry VIII's marriage to Anne Boleyn was not recognised by Rome). Several immediate challenges confronted her:

Gender prejudice — women were considered unfit to rule alone; marriage was expected but raised questions about who would hold real power
Financial weakness — the Crown was £300,000 in debt following Mary I's wars
Religious division — England had switched between Protestantism (Edward VI) and Catholicism (Mary I) in just 11 years
French threat — Mary Queen of Scots, married to the French Dauphin, had a strong claim to the English throne

Elizabeth's Religious Settlement (1559) aimed to establish a middle way. The Act of Supremacy made Elizabeth 'Supreme Governor' of the Church (not 'Head', avoiding offence to Catholics who believed only Christ could head the church). The Act of Uniformity established The Book of Common Prayer with deliberately ambiguous wording on communion to satisfy both Protestants and Catholics. Church decoration was kept relatively plain but not completely bare. Clergy were required to wear vestments.

The Settlement faced opposition from both sides. Puritan clergy wanted further Protestant reforms, while Catholic bishops in the House of Lords opposed the changes (all resigned or were removed). However, most ordinary people conformed outwardly, though perhaps 40,000 remained recusant Catholics by the 1570s.

The challenge of Mary Queen of Scots (1568-1587)

Mary Stuart arrived in England in May 1568 after fleeing Scotland following her forced abdication. A Catholic with a strong claim to the English throne (as Henry VII's great-granddaughter), she became the focus of Catholic plots for 19 years.

The Revolt of the Northern Earls (1569) was the first major challenge. The Earls of Northumberland and Westmorland, both Catholic, aimed to marry Mary to the Duke of Norfolk, depose Elizabeth, and restore Catholicism. They captured Durham Cathedral and celebrated Catholic Mass, raising perhaps 5,000 men. Elizabeth's forces, led by the Earl of Sussex, quickly suppressed the revolt. Around 450 rebels were executed as a deterrent.

The Ridolfi Plot (1571) involved an Italian banker coordinating between the Duke of Norfolk, Spanish ambassador, and Philip II of Spain. The plan involved a Spanish invasion, Norfolk marrying Mary, and Elizabeth's assassination. Francis Walsingham's spy network uncovered letters proving Norfolk's involvement. Norfolk was executed in 1572, though Elizabeth kept Mary alive (a reigning monarch's execution would set a dangerous precedent).

The Throckmorton Plot (1583) planned a French invasion with papal financing. Francis Throckmorton acted as messenger between Mary and Spanish ambassador Mendoza. Walsingham's agents discovered coded letters and a list of Catholic sympathisers. Throckmorton was executed and Mendoza expelled.

The Babington Plot (1586) proved fatal for Mary. Anthony Babington, a young Catholic nobleman, coordinated with John Ballard (a Jesuit priest) to assassinate Elizabeth. Walsingham allowed the plot to develop, intercepting and decoding letters that proved Mary's direct involvement. She explicitly consented to Elizabeth's assassination in her replies. Elizabeth reluctantly signed Mary's death warrant; Mary was executed at Fotheringhay Castle on 8 February 1587.

The Puritan challenge

Puritans were radical Protestants who wanted to 'purify' the Church of England of remaining Catholic practices. They opposed:

Vestments and bishops (preferring presbyterian church government)
Kneeling at communion
Decorative elements in churches
The Book of Common Prayer

Key Puritan challenges included:

The Vestments Controversy (1566) when 37 London priests refused to wear required vestments
Puritan pamphleteering, especially the Marprelate Tracts (1588-89) which mocked bishops
Presbyterian movements in Parliament attempting to reform church government

Elizabeth and Archbishop Whitgift responded firmly. The Act of Uniformity was strictly enforced. The Court of High Commission investigated non-conformity. Around 400 Puritan clergy were suspended or deprived of their positions by 1590. However, Elizabeth never faced a Puritan rebellion — most Puritans remained loyal subjects who focused on parliamentary reform rather than violence.

Foreign policy and the Spanish threat

Relations with Spain deteriorated throughout Elizabeth's reign:

Causes of conflict:

English support for Dutch Protestant rebels against Spanish rule (from 1585)
English privateering (licensed piracy) against Spanish treasure fleets by Drake, Hawkins, and others
Mary Queen of Scots' execution (1587) removed Philip II's hesitation about invading
Religious differences (Catholic Spain versus Protestant England)
Commercial rivalry over New World trade

English privateering was extremely provocative. Sir Francis Drake's circumnavigation (1577-80) included raiding Spanish colonies and capturing treasure worth £400,000. His raid on Cadiz (1587) destroyed ships and supplies, delaying the Armada by a year.

The Spanish Armada (1588) aimed to transport 30,000 troops from the Netherlands to invade England. The Spanish fleet of 130 ships was commanded by the Duke of Medina Sidonia. English advantages included faster, more manoeuvrable ships; longer-range cannons; experienced commanders (Lord Howard of Effingham, Drake, Hawkins); and knowledge of home waters.

The English fleet harried the Armada up the Channel, preventing it from stopping to collect troops. At Calais, English fireships scattered the Spanish formation. The Battle of Gravelines (8 August 1588) inflicted significant damage. Attempting to return via Scotland, storms destroyed many ships. Only 67 vessels returned to Spain; perhaps 15,000 men died.

The Armada's defeat preserved England's independence and Protestantism, boosting national confidence. However, war continued until 1604, costing enormous sums that Elizabeth struggled to raise through taxation and selling Crown lands.

Elizabeth's court and government

Elizabeth governed through a small Privy Council that met almost daily. Key members included:

William Cecil (Lord Burghley) — Secretary of State (1558-72), Lord Treasurer (1572-98), Elizabeth's most trusted advisor
Sir Francis Walsingham — Secretary of State (1573-90), created an extensive spy network across Europe
Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester — Master of the Horse, Elizabeth's favourite, died 1588
Sir Christopher Hatton — Lord Chancellor from 1587

Elizabeth used patronage skillfully to maintain loyalty without giving away too much power. She granted titles, monopolies, and positions but kept ultimate authority. She remained unmarried, avoiding the problem of a husband claiming superiority. Her status as the 'Virgin Queen' became a propaganda tool, presenting herself as married to England.

Parliament was called only when Elizabeth needed taxes (13 sessions in 45 years). MPs occasionally challenged royal prerogative, particularly demanding action on the succession and Mary Queen of Scots. Elizabeth firmly rejected interference in these 'matters of state'. In 1601, she conceded to parliamentary pressure over monopolies in her famous 'Golden Speech', demonstrating political flexibility when necessary.

Elizabethan society and daily life

Social hierarchy was rigid and believed divinely ordained:

Monarch and nobility
Gentry (landowners)
Yeomen (wealthy farmers)
Tenant farmers
Landless labourers and vagabonds

The gentry class expanded significantly during Elizabeth's reign, educated men purchasing land and building country houses. The theatre flourished (despite Puritan opposition), with purpose-built playhouses like The Globe (1599). William Shakespeare wrote most of his plays in the 1590s-1600s.

Poverty increased due to population growth (from 3 million to 4 million during Elizabeth's reign), rising prices, and enclosure of common land. The 1601 Poor Law made parishes responsible for their own poor, distinguishing between the 'deserving poor' (given relief) and 'idle vagabonds' (punished). This remained the basis of poor relief until 1834.

Worked examples

Question 1 (4 marks): Describe two features of the Religious Settlement of 1559.

Model answer: One feature of the Religious Settlement was the Act of Supremacy, which made Elizabeth 'Supreme Governor' of the Church of England. This gave her control over religious matters but used the title 'Governor' rather than 'Head' to avoid offending Catholics who believed only Christ could head the church.

Another feature was the Act of Uniformity, which established The Book of Common Prayer for all church services. The wording about communion was deliberately ambiguous so both Protestants and Catholics could interpret it according to their beliefs, helping Elizabeth achieve religious compromise.

[This scores full marks by identifying two features and developing each with supporting detail. Aim for approximately 50 words per feature.]

Question 2 (12 marks): Explain why Mary Queen of Scots was a threat to Elizabeth I.

Model answer: Mary Queen of Scots posed a serious threat because of her legitimate claim to the English throne as Henry VII's great-granddaughter. Many Catholics considered Elizabeth illegitimate because the Pope had not recognised Henry VIII's marriage to Anne Boleyn. This meant Catholic powers like Spain and France had a rival candidate they could support to replace Elizabeth, making Mary the natural focus for Catholic plots throughout her 19 years in England.

Mary's presence in England from 1568 onwards encouraged Catholic conspiracies. The Revolt of the Northern Earls (1569) aimed to marry her to the Duke of Norfolk and place her on the throne. Later plots including Ridolfi (1571), Throckmorton (1583), and Babington (1586) all centred on freeing Mary and making her queen. The Babington Plot proved especially dangerous as coded letters showed Mary explicitly consented to Elizabeth's assassination, forcing Elizabeth to finally execute her in 1587.

Additionally, Mary's Catholic faith and connections to Catholic powers increased the threat. Her first husband had been King of France, and Philip II of Spain considered supporting her claim. After Pope Pius V excommunicated Elizabeth in 1570, declaring her a heretic, Catholics were officially released from obedience to Elizabeth. This meant Mary represented not just a rival claimant but the figurehead for international Catholic opposition to Elizabeth's Protestant regime, linking domestic and foreign threats together.

[This scores highly by explaining three distinct reasons with detailed supporting evidence, showing clear links between Mary and the threats she posed. Answers must explain 'why' rather than just describe events.]

Question 3 (16 marks + 4 SPaG): 'The main reason for the failure of the Spanish Armada was English tactics.' How far do you agree? Explain your answer.

Model answer structure:

Introduction: State your judgement (e.g., "English tactics were important but weather and Spanish mistakes were equally significant").

Paragraph 1 (agreeing): English tactics were effective — fireships at Calais scattered the Spanish formation; faster, more manoeuvrable English ships harried the Armada; longer-range cannons allowed English ships to avoid Spanish grappling tactics; experienced commanders like Drake and Howard coordinated the fleet well. These tactical advantages prevented the Spanish from landing troops.

Paragraph 2 (other factors): However, weather played a crucial role that no tactics could control. Storms destroyed many ships returning via Scotland — more Spanish ships were lost to weather than combat. The Spanish also made errors: Medina Sidonia was inexperienced; the plan required perfect coordination between fleet and army that proved impossible; Spanish cannons had shorter range requiring closer combat that English ships avoided.

Paragraph 3 (other factors continued): English geography and defensive preparations mattered too. Beacon system gave early warning; naval preparations at Plymouth positioned the fleet well; Spanish had nowhere safe to land and regroup; England's island position meant Spanish reinforcements couldn't easily arrive.

Conclusion: Restate your judgement with balance — English tactics were significant but worked alongside fortunate weather and Spanish mistakes. No single factor alone explains the outcome.

[This structure addresses the question directly, considers multiple factors with specific evidence, and maintains a clear judgement throughout. Aim for 300-350 words total.]

Common mistakes and how to avoid them

Mistake: Confusing the dates and details of different Catholic plots against Elizabeth. Correction: Create a timeline noting the key conspirators and outcomes: Revolt of Northern Earls (1569) — earls flee; Ridolfi (1571) — Norfolk executed; Throckmorton (1583) — Spanish ambassador expelled; Babington (1586) — Mary executed.
Mistake: Stating that Elizabeth solved the religious problem completely with the 1559 Settlement. Correction: The Settlement was a compromise that faced ongoing opposition from both Puritans (who wanted further reform) and Catholics (who remained loyal to Rome). Religious tension continued throughout her reign, with Jesuit missionaries arriving from 1574 and anti-Catholic laws intensifying after 1570.
Mistake: Describing the Spanish Armada as a complete disaster caused only by English superiority. Correction: Multiple factors contributed — English naval tactics, Spanish planning failures, and especially weather. The Armada was damaged but not destroyed in combat; storms caused most losses on the return journey.
Mistake: Explaining Elizabeth's refusal to marry as purely personal choice. Correction: Marriage carried political risks — a foreign husband might involve England in continental wars; an English husband would create faction rivalry; any husband might try to dominate her. Remaining unmarried preserved her independence and became a propaganda tool (the 'Virgin Queen' married to England).
Mistake: Writing about Elizabethan theatre, exploration, or poverty without linking to the exam focus on political and religious issues. Correction: Connect social history to core themes — theatre thrived despite Puritan opposition (religious tension); exploration increased conflict with Spain (foreign policy); poverty required the 1601 Poor Law (governance).
Mistake: Using vague phrases like "Catholics were persecuted" without specific evidence. Correction: Provide precise examples: recusancy fines of one shilling per absence from church; around 130 Catholics executed during Elizabeth's reign (compared to 280 Protestants under Mary I); Jesuit priests faced execution for treason after 1585.

Exam technique for Early Elizabethan England

Question types and command words: Edexcel Paper 2 includes 'Describe...' questions (4 marks — identify two features with supporting detail); 'Explain why...' questions (12 marks — analyse multiple causes or consequences with developed explanation); and 'How far do you agree...' essays (16 marks + 4 SPaG — argue a judgement considering multiple factors with specific evidence).
Structuring 12-mark explanations: Write three developed paragraphs (PEE: Point, Evidence, Explanation), each covering a different reason or consequence. Begin each paragraph with a clear analytical point, support it with precise factual evidence, then explain the link to the question. Avoid narrative — focus on 'why' or 'what impact' rather than 'what happened'.
Approaching 16-mark essays: Plan your argument before writing. Consider factors both supporting and challenging the statement. Use the first sentence of each paragraph to signal your argument clearly. Integrate specific evidence throughout (names, dates, statistics, events). Write a brief conclusion that directly answers 'how far' you agree. The 4 SPaG marks reward accurate spelling, punctuation, grammar, and specialist terminology.
Using evidence effectively: Examiners reward precise factual knowledge used analytically. Instead of "there were plots against Elizabeth," write "the Babington Plot (1586) involved coded letters proving Mary Queen of Scots had consented to Elizabeth's assassination." Named individuals, specific dates, and accurate details demonstrate the depth of knowledge required for top marks.

Quick revision summary

Elizabeth I faced immediate challenges in 1558: legitimacy questions, religious division, financial weakness, and foreign threats. Her Religious Settlement (1559) established a Protestant Church of England with moderate policies. Mary Queen of Scots (in England 1568-87) was the focus of Catholic plots including the Northern Rebellion, Ridolfi, Throckmorton, and Babington conspiracies. Puritans challenged Elizabeth from the opposite direction, demanding further Protestant reform. Relations with Spain deteriorated due to religion, privateering, and support for Dutch rebels, culminating in the failed Spanish Armada (1588). Elizabeth governed through the Privy Council and Parliament, using patronage skillfully while maintaining personal authority throughout her reign until 1603.