Religion and Ethics: Issues of Life and Death

What you'll learn

This revision guide covers the key ethical and religious perspectives on life and death issues tested in the Edexcel GCSE Religious Studies examination. You will explore how Christianity and Islam (or other religions depending on your specification route) approach abortion, euthanasia, the death penalty, beliefs about life after death, and concepts relating to the sanctity and quality of life. The content focuses on the theological arguments, scriptural references, and contemporary ethical debates that examiners expect you to demonstrate.

Key terms and definitions

Sanctity of life — the belief that life is sacred and holy because it is God-given; therefore, only God has the authority to end life.

Quality of life — the degree to which an individual can enjoy normal life activities and experiences; their general wellbeing and ability to live with dignity.

Abortion — the deliberate termination of a pregnancy, usually performed during the first 24 weeks in the UK under the 1967 Abortion Act (amended 1990).

Euthanasia — the act of deliberately ending someone's life to relieve suffering; illegal in the UK but legal in some countries like the Netherlands and Belgium.

Soul — the spiritual element of a human being, believed to be immortal and continue after physical death; central to religious understandings of personhood.

Resurrection — the belief that after death, the physical body will be raised and reunited with the soul, particularly in Christianity and Islam.

Afterlife — existence believed to continue after physical death; may include concepts of heaven, hell, purgatory or reincarnation depending on religious tradition.

Ensoulment — the moment when religious believers think the soul enters the body; debated as occurring at conception, implantation or later in pregnancy.

Core concepts

The sanctity and quality of life

Religious believers generally uphold the sanctity of life principle, viewing human life as sacred from conception to natural death. This perspective fundamentally shapes attitudes toward abortion, euthanasia, and medical ethics.

Christian perspectives:

• Life is created in the image of God (Genesis 1:27): "So God created mankind in his own image"
• God has a plan for every individual: "Before I formed you in the womb I knew you" (Jeremiah 1:5)
• The commandment "Do not murder" (Exodus 20:13) applies to the protection of innocent life
• Catholics emphasise that life is sacred from conception and must be protected at every stage
• Some Protestant denominations allow for more flexibility in extreme circumstances, considering quality of life

Islamic perspectives:

• Allah creates all life and determines when it ends: "And no person can ever die except by Allah's leave" (Qur'an 3:145)
• Humans are appointed as khalifah (stewards) of creation, not owners of life
• Taking innocent life is compared to killing all humanity (Qur'an 5:32)
• The soul is breathed into the foetus at 120 days according to Hadith, though life is protected before this point
• Preserving life is one of the five Maqasid al-Shariah (purposes of Islamic law)

Quality of life considerations become important when religious believers face difficult medical decisions, though most traditions prioritise sanctity over quality when they conflict.

Abortion

Abortion remains one of the most contested ethical issues where religious teachings interact with secular law. In the UK, abortion is legal under specific conditions defined by the 1967 Abortion Act.

Legal framework in the UK:

• Permitted up to 24 weeks if two doctors agree that continuing pregnancy involves greater risk to physical or mental health than termination
• Allowed after 24 weeks only if mother's life is at risk or severe foetal abnormality is detected
• Approximately 200,000 abortions performed annually in England and Wales

Christian views:

• Catholic Church: Absolutely opposed in all circumstances; abortion is considered murder because life begins at conception; excommunication may result
• Catholic teaching emphasises alternatives such as adoption and support for mothers in crisis pregnancies
• Church of England: Generally opposed but recognises circumstances where it may be the "lesser of two evils" (rape, serious foetal abnormality, threat to mother's life)
• Protestant evangelical churches typically oppose abortion but may accept it when the mother's life is endangered
• The principle of double effect may apply where treatment to save the mother indirectly causes death of foetus (e.g., ectopic pregnancy)

Islamic views:

• Most scholars permit abortion before 120 days if there is serious reason (mother's health, rape, severe disability)
• After ensoulment at 120 days, abortion is only permitted to save the mother's life
• Some scholars are stricter, allowing abortion only before 40 days except for the most serious reasons
• The mother's life always takes priority because she has established rights and responsibilities
• Abortion for social or economic reasons is generally not accepted

Ethical arguments:

• Pro-life: Foetus has right to life from conception; potential for life must be protected; alternatives exist
• Pro-choice: Woman's bodily autonomy; foetus not yet a person with rights; compassion for difficult circumstances
• Religious believers often emphasise support and compassion rather than judgment toward women facing crisis pregnancies

Euthanasia and assisted dying

Euthanasia literally means "good death" but encompasses various practices that raise distinct ethical questions.

Types of euthanasia:

• Voluntary euthanasia: person requests their own death (illegal in UK)
• Non-voluntary euthanasia: person cannot make decision, others decide (illegal in UK)
• Assisted suicide: person ends own life with medical assistance (illegal in UK; legal in Switzerland, Oregon, Canada)
• Passive euthanasia: withdrawing/withholding life-prolonging treatment (legally permitted in UK with proper consent)

Christian perspectives:

• Most denominations oppose active euthanasia as it violates sanctity of life and "playing God"
• Life is a gift from God; only God should determine when it ends
• Suffering may have spiritual meaning and should not be deliberately ended
• Catholic Church distinguishes between ordinary and extraordinary treatment; refusing burdensome treatment is acceptable
• Hospice movement founded by Christian Dame Cicely Saunders offers palliative care alternative
• Some liberal Christians accept voluntary euthanasia as merciful in extreme suffering, emphasising God's love and compassion
• "Assisted suicide is suicide" argument: helping someone die is morally equivalent to killing

Islamic perspectives:

• Active euthanasia categorically forbidden as form of murder
• Suicide prohibited in Islam: "And do not kill yourselves" (Qur'an 4:29)
• Only Allah determines length of life; humans must not interfere
• Passive euthanasia may be acceptable when treatment is futile and only prolongs suffering
• Focus on intention: pain relief that may shorten life is acceptable if intention is to relieve suffering, not to kill
• Caring for the dying is religious obligation; abandoning patients is wrong

Arguments in ethical debate:

• For: Individual autonomy; compassion to end suffering; dignity in death; quality of life
• Against: Sanctity of life; "slippery slope" to involuntary killing; pressure on vulnerable; improved palliative care is better solution

Beliefs about life after death

Religious teachings about the afterlife profoundly influence ethical behaviour and provide comfort regarding death.

Christian beliefs:

• Resurrection: Jesus's resurrection is central; Christians believe in bodily resurrection at the end of time
• "I am the resurrection and the life" (John 11:25)
• Judgment: particular judgment at death and Final Judgment when Christ returns
• Heaven: eternal life in God's presence for the righteous
• Hell: eternal separation from God for the unrepentant; understood literally by some, metaphorically by others
• Purgatory (Catholic): temporary state of purification before entering heaven
• Resurrection body will be transformed, not identical to earthly body (1 Corinthians 15)
• Belief in afterlife motivates moral behaviour and provides hope

Islamic beliefs:

• Akhirah (afterlife) is core article of faith
• Barzakh: barrier/intermediate state between death and resurrection where soul awaits Judgment
• Angels Munkar and Nakir question the deceased in the grave
• Day of Judgment (Yawm ad-Din): all resurrected and judged by Allah based on deeds recorded in books
• Jannah (Paradise): eternal reward with physical and spiritual pleasures for believers who lived righteously
• Jahannam (Hell): punishment for disbelievers and evildoers; some believe temporary for Muslims, permanent for disbelievers
• Physical resurrection emphasised: bodies recreated for judgment
• Belief in afterlife shapes entire moral framework and submission to Allah's will

Impact on attitudes to death:

• Reduces fear of death for believers
• Encourages moral living and accountability
• Provides comfort to bereaved
• Influences funeral practices and mourning rituals
• Affects decisions about end-of-life care

Death penalty (capital punishment)

Though abolished in the UK in 1965 (for murder) and 1998 (completely), the death penalty remains controversial globally and tests religious ethical reasoning.

Arguments for death penalty:

• Retribution: "eye for eye" justice (lex talionis)
• Deterrence: prevents future crimes through fear
• Protection: permanently removes dangerous individuals
• Closure for victims' families
• Biblical support: "Whoever sheds human blood, by humans shall their blood be shed" (Genesis 9:6)

Arguments against:

• Sanctity of life: only God can take life
• Irreversible if wrongful conviction occurs
• Fails as deterrent according to research
• Jesus's teaching of forgiveness and mercy
• Rehabilitation impossible if person executed
• Applied discriminatorily against poor and minorities

Christian views:

• Catholic Church: Previously accepted but now officially opposes in almost all cases; Pope Francis declared it "inadmissible" (2018)
• Focus on rehabilitation and dignity; execution contradicts this
• Jesus's treatment of woman caught in adultery emphasises mercy over Old Testament law (John 8:1-11)
• Some evangelical Christians support death penalty citing Old Testament law
• "Turn the other cheek" and forgiveness teachings suggest opposition

Islamic views:

• Permitted under Shari'ah law for specific crimes (murder, adultery, apostasy) with strict evidential requirements
• Qisas (retribution): victim's family has right to demand execution for murder
• However, forgiveness and diyah (blood money compensation) strongly encouraged as superior
• "Whoever kills a believer intentionally, his recompense is Hell" (Qur'an 4:93)
• Must be applied by legitimate Islamic authority with proper legal process
• Mercy and forgiveness repeatedly emphasised as preferable

Worked examples

Example 1: 5-mark "Explain two religious beliefs about..." question

Question: Explain two religious beliefs about abortion. Refer to sacred writings or another source of religious belief and teaching in your answer.

Model answer: One Christian belief is that abortion is wrong because life is sacred from conception. Catholics believe that human life begins at the moment of conception, and therefore abortion is equivalent to murder, breaking the commandment "Do not murder" (Exodus 20:13). This means the Catholic Church opposes abortion in all circumstances, even in cases of rape or disability, as every life is valuable to God.

Another belief, held by many Muslims, is that abortion may be permitted in certain circumstances before ensoulment. According to Hadith, the soul enters the foetus at 120 days, so some Islamic scholars allow abortion before this point for serious reasons such as protecting the mother's health. The Qur'an teaches "And no person can ever die except by Allah's leave" (3:145), but preserving the mother's life takes priority because she has established rights and responsibilities in Islam.

Mark scheme guidance:

• Each belief = up to 3 marks (1 mark for basic belief, +1 for development, +1 for scripture/source)
• Must include scriptural reference or religious source
• Development should explain the belief's significance or application

Example 2: 12-mark evaluation question

Question: "Religious believers should never support euthanasia." Evaluate this statement considering arguments for and against. In your response you should: • refer to religious arguments • reach a justified conclusion.

Model answer structure: Arguments for the statement (religious believers should never support euthanasia):

• Sanctity of life principle means only God can end life, so euthanasia is "playing God"
• Catholic teaching absolutely opposes euthanasia as murder
• Qur'an prohibits suicide: "And do not kill yourselves" (4:29)
• Slippery slope: accepting euthanasia could lead to pressure on vulnerable people
• Hospice care and palliative medicine offer better alternatives to ending suffering

Arguments against the statement (religious believers might support euthanasia):

• Quality of life matters; some Christians believe God's compassion extends to ending unbearable suffering
• Situation ethics: Jesus showed agape love; sometimes mercy may override absolute rules
• Individual autonomy is important; God gave humans free will to make difficult decisions
• Passive euthanasia (withdrawing treatment) accepted by many religious traditions
• Relieving suffering is a religious duty; euthanasia could be the most loving action

Conclusion: I believe that while traditional religious teaching strongly opposes active euthanasia based on sanctity of life, the debate is more nuanced than absolute rejection. The distinction between active killing and allowing to die (passive euthanasia) is important and recognised by most religious traditions. However, the strongest religious position maintains that humans should not deliberately end life, instead focusing on palliative care and spiritual support for the dying. The risk of abuse and the availability of alternatives mean religious believers are justified in opposing legalisation, even if showing compassion to individuals facing suffering.

Mark scheme guidance:

• Levels-based marking (4 levels, 0-12 marks)
• Must include religious arguments from both perspectives
• Need clear, justified conclusion based on evidence presented
• Best answers evaluate throughout, not just list arguments
• Reference to scripture/teachings strengthens response

Common mistakes and how to avoid them

• Confusing types of euthanasia: Be precise about voluntary vs non-voluntary, active vs passive. Examiners penalise vague answers that don't distinguish between them. Remember: passive euthanasia (withdrawing treatment) is legal in UK; active euthanasia is not.

• Failing to reference religious sources: 5-mark questions explicitly require scripture or religious teaching. Simply stating a belief without referencing Bible, Qur'an, Church teaching, or Hadith loses marks. Learn 3-4 key quotations for each topic.

• One-sided evaluation answers: 12-mark questions demand arguments for both perspectives. Spending 80% on one view and briefly mentioning the other won't reach Level 4. Balance is essential, even if your conclusion favours one side.

• Confusing Christian denominations: Catholic teaching is not identical to Church of England or evangelical Protestant views. Specify which tradition you're discussing, especially on abortion and euthanasia where views differ significantly.

• Describing UK law without religious perspective: Questions ask about religious beliefs, not just legal positions. While mentioning UK law adds context, you must connect it to religious teachings to earn marks.

• Weak conclusions: "Everyone has their own opinion" or "it depends on the situation" are insufficient. Your conclusion should weigh the arguments presented and explain which perspective you find more convincing and why, based on religious reasoning.

Exam technique for "Religion and Ethics: Issues of Life and Death"

• Command words matter: "Explain" requires developed points with examples/scripture (not just stating beliefs); "Evaluate" demands weighing different views with justified conclusion. Identify the command word first and structure your answer accordingly.

• Use P.E.E. structure for 5-mark questions: Make a Point, provide Evidence (scripture/teaching), Explain its significance. Each belief needs full development across approximately 3-4 sentences. Two well-developed beliefs score better than three shallow ones.

• Plan evaluation answers: Spend 2-3 minutes listing arguments for both sides before writing. This prevents one-sided responses and ensures you have material for a balanced conclusion. Use first 2 paragraphs for each perspective, final paragraph for justified conclusion.

• Time management for 12-mark questions: Allocate approximately 15 minutes. Write 3-4 developed paragraphs (not 10 brief points). Quality of reasoning matters more than quantity of arguments. Each paragraph should develop one argument with religious justification.

Quick revision summary

Life and death ethics involve balancing sanctity of life (life is God-given and sacred) with quality of life considerations. Most religious traditions oppose abortion and active euthanasia based on belief that only God has authority over life and death, supported by scripture and theological principles. Christianity emphasises humans are made in God's image; Islam stresses humans are khalifah (stewards). Abortion laws vary globally; UK permits it under conditions up to 24 weeks. Euthanasia remains illegal in UK but legal elsewhere. Beliefs about afterlife—Christian resurrection and heaven/hell, Islamic Akhirah and Jannah/Jahannam—profoundly shape ethical behaviour and provide meaning to death. Death penalty debates balance retribution with mercy and rehabilitation.