What you'll learn
This revision guide covers the USA from 1920 to 1973, examining how America transformed from isolationism to global superpower. You'll explore economic boom and bust, the New Deal, civil rights struggles, and Cold War tensions. These notes align precisely with the OCR GCSE History specification and provide everything you need to achieve top marks.
Key terms and definitions
Prohibition — The constitutional ban on alcohol production, sale and transportation in the USA from 1920 to 1933, enforced by the Volstead Act.
The New Deal — President Franklin D. Roosevelt's programme of economic and social reforms (1933–1941) designed to combat the Great Depression through government intervention.
McCarthyism — The aggressive anti-communist campaign led by Senator Joseph McCarthy in the early 1950s, characterised by unfounded accusations and investigations.
Jim Crow Laws — State and local laws enforcing racial segregation in the Southern states between 1877 and the mid-1960s.
The Great Depression — The severe worldwide economic crisis beginning with the 1929 Wall Street Crash, causing mass unemployment, poverty and bank failures.
The Red Scare — Periods of intense fear of communism in America, particularly after WWI (1919–20) and during the early Cold War (1947–57).
De jure segregation — Racial separation enforced by law, particularly in Southern states until the 1960s.
De facto segregation — Racial separation existing through social customs and economic conditions rather than explicit laws, common in Northern states.
Core concepts
The economic boom of the 1920s
The 1920s witnessed unprecedented economic growth in America, often called the "Roaring Twenties." Several factors drove this prosperity:
Republican policies promoted business growth through laissez-faire economics. Presidents Harding, Coolidge and Hoover reduced government interference, cut taxes for the wealthy, and imposed tariffs protecting American industries. The Federal Reserve kept interest rates low, encouraging borrowing and investment.
Mass production techniques revolutionised manufacturing. Henry Ford's assembly line methods reduced car production time from 12 hours to 90 minutes. The Model T's price fell from $850 to $290, making cars affordable for ordinary Americans. By 1929, one in five Americans owned a car.
Consumer culture expanded rapidly through hire purchase (credit) schemes and aggressive advertising. Electric goods like refrigerators, vacuum cleaners and radios became common in middle-class homes. The entertainment industry flourished with cinema attendance reaching 100 million weekly by 1929.
However, prosperity was uneven. Farmers struggled throughout the decade due to overproduction and falling prices. African Americans, Native Americans and new immigrants faced discrimination limiting economic opportunities. Approximately 60% of families lived below the poverty line despite the boom.
Prohibition and its consequences (1920–1933)
The 18th Amendment and Volstead Act banned alcohol to reduce crime, improve health and strengthen morality. Instead, Prohibition created numerous problems:
Organised crime flourished as gangsters like Al Capone controlled illegal alcohol distribution. Speakeasies (illegal bars) numbered over 30,000 in New York alone. The St Valentine's Day Massacre (1929) demonstrated the violence of rival gangs competing for alcohol profits.
Government corruption increased as police, judges and politicians accepted bribes from bootleggers. Federal agents struggled to enforce the law across America's vast territory with insufficient resources.
Public attitudes shifted as middle-class Americans regularly broke the law. The Depression made Prohibition seem wasteful – legalising alcohol would create jobs and tax revenue. The 21st Amendment repealed Prohibition in 1933.
The Wall Street Crash and Great Depression
On 24 October 1929 ("Black Thursday"), panic selling began on Wall Street. By 29 October ("Black Tuesday"), share prices collapsed completely. This triggered America's worst economic crisis:
Causes of the Crash included speculation (buying shares on credit), overproduction in industries, unequal wealth distribution, and weak banking regulation. When confidence collapsed, panic selling accelerated the disaster.
Economic consequences devastated America. Unemployment rose from 3% (1929) to 25% (1933). Industrial production halved. 5,000 banks failed, destroying people's savings. Homelessness increased dramatically – shanty towns called "Hoovervilles" appeared in cities.
Social impact was severe. Farmers faced foreclosure as crop prices collapsed. The Dust Bowl environmental disaster forced thousands to migrate west. Suicide rates increased and marriage rates fell as people couldn't afford families.
President Hoover's response proved inadequate. He believed in "rugged individualism" and refused direct government relief, though he did establish the Reconstruction Finance Corporation to help banks and businesses.
Roosevelt's New Deal (1933–1941)
Franklin D. Roosevelt won the 1932 election promising a "New Deal for the American people." His programmes divided into relief, recovery and reform:
First New Deal (1933–1935) focused on immediate relief. The Emergency Banking Act restored confidence in banks. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) employed young men in conservation projects. The Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) paid farmers to reduce production, raising prices. The National Industrial Recovery Act established fair competition codes and workers' rights.
Second New Deal (1935–1938) emphasised reform and workers' rights. The Works Progress Administration (WPA) employed 8 million in construction projects. The Social Security Act (1935) introduced unemployment insurance and old-age pensions. The Wagner Act guaranteed union rights and collective bargaining.
Opposition to the New Deal came from multiple directions. Republicans and businessmen condemned it as socialist and unconstitutional. The Supreme Court declared several agencies unconstitutional until Roosevelt threatened to "pack" the court with sympathetic judges. Some critics argued the New Deal didn't go far enough – Huey Long proposed a "Share Our Wealth" programme redistributing income more radically.
Success and limitations: The New Deal reduced unemployment and restored confidence but didn't end the Depression (World War II achieved that). It established the principle of federal government responsibility for citizens' welfare and created lasting institutions like Social Security.
The USA and the Cold War (1945–1973)
After World War II, tensions between the USA and USSR created the Cold War – an ideological, political and economic struggle without direct military conflict between the superpowers.
Truman's containment policy aimed to prevent communism spreading. The Truman Doctrine (1947) pledged support for countries resisting communism. The Marshall Plan provided $13 billion to rebuild Western Europe, preventing communist influence. When Stalin blockaded West Berlin (1948–49), Truman organised an airlift supplying the city for 11 months.
The Korean War (1950–1953) tested containment when North Korea invaded South Korea. Truman sent troops under UN command. China's intervention created stalemate near the original border, demonstrating containment's limitations.
Domestic anti-communism intensified. The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) investigated suspected communists in government and Hollywood. Senator McCarthy's accusations (1950–1954) ruined careers through guilt by association until his methods were discredited. The Rosenbergs were executed in 1953 for allegedly passing atomic secrets to the USSR.
The Vietnam War divided America. Kennedy increased advisers in South Vietnam; Johnson escalated to 500,000 troops by 1968. The Tet Offensive (1968) turned public opinion against the war despite military success. Anti-war protests intensified, particularly among students. Nixon's "Vietnamization" policy withdrew American troops while supporting South Vietnamese forces. The war demonstrated limits of American power and created lasting social divisions.
The civil rights movement (1945–1973)
African Americans faced systematic discrimination despite fighting for freedom in World War II. The civil rights movement challenged this injustice through legal challenges and direct action.
Early victories came through the courts. The NAACP's legal strategy culminated in Brown v. Board of Education (1954), where the Supreme Court declared school segregation unconstitutional. However, Southern states resisted implementation. The Little Rock Nine (1957) needed federal troops' protection to attend Central High School.
Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955–1956) began when Rosa Parks refused to give her seat to a white passenger. Martin Luther King Jr. emerged as leader, advocating nonviolent protest based on Christian principles and Gandhi's methods. The boycott lasted 381 days until the Supreme Court ruled bus segregation unconstitutional.
Direct action campaigns escalated in the 1960s. The sit-in movement began in Greensboro (1960) when students occupied segregated lunch counters. Freedom Riders (1961) challenged segregation in interstate transport, facing violent attacks. Birmingham Campaign (1963) used peaceful protests against brutal police responses, televised nationally. King's March on Washington (1963) attracted 250,000 people and delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech.
Legislative achievements followed sustained pressure. The Civil Rights Act (1964) outlawed discrimination in public facilities and employment. The Voting Rights Act (1965) ended discriminatory voting practices. The Fair Housing Act (1968) prohibited discrimination in housing.
Alternative approaches emerged as progress seemed slow. Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam rejected integration, advocating black separatism and self-defence. The Black Power movement emphasised racial pride and community control. The Black Panthers (1966) organised community programmes but also armed self-defence, leading to violent confrontations with police.
Impact and limitations: Legal segregation ended and black political participation increased. However, de facto segregation, economic inequality and police brutality persisted, particularly in Northern cities. Riots in Watts (1965), Detroit (1967) and after King's assassination (1968) revealed continuing frustration.
Social change in the 1960s
The 1960s witnessed dramatic social transformations beyond civil rights:
Youth culture developed distinct identity through rock music, fashion and values challenging traditional authority. The counterculture rejected materialism and conformity. Student protests against Vietnam War spread across universities.
Women's liberation movement challenged gender inequality. Betty Friedan's "The Feminine Mystique" (1963) criticised women's domestic confinement. The National Organization for Women (1966) campaigned for equal rights in employment, education and politics. Despite progress, the Equal Rights Amendment failed to achieve ratification.
Worked examples
Question: Explain why Prohibition failed. [10 marks]
Model answer: Prohibition failed primarily because it proved impossible to enforce across America's vast territory. The Volstead Act employed only 1,500 agents to police the entire nation, making comprehensive enforcement impossible. Consequently, illegal alcohol production and distribution flourished through speakeasies and bootleggers.
Organised crime exploited Prohibition's commercial opportunities. Al Capone earned $60 million annually from illegal alcohol in Chicago alone. Gangsters corrupted law enforcement through bribes, further undermining enforcement. The St Valentine's Day Massacre demonstrated how prohibition increased rather than decreased crime.
Public attitudes undermined Prohibition's legitimacy. Middle-class Americans regularly broke the law, viewing it as governmental overreach into personal freedom. By the Depression, legalising alcohol offered economic benefits through taxation and employment. Roosevelt's election promised repeal, which the 21st Amendment delivered in 1933, acknowledging Prohibition's comprehensive failure.
Examiner comment: This answer demonstrates clear causal reasoning with specific supporting evidence. It addresses enforcement problems, criminal consequences and changing attitudes, showing understanding of interconnected factors. Worth 9/10 marks.
Question: How far do you agree that the New Deal was a success? [18 marks]
Model answer structure:
- Introduction: Define success criteria (unemployment reduction, economic recovery, lasting reform)
- Paragraph 1: Evidence of success – CCC employed 3 million, WPA 8 million; Social Security provided safety net; restored confidence through bank reforms
- Paragraph 2: Evidence of limitations – unemployment still 17% in 1939; constitutional conflicts with Supreme Court; didn't fully recover economy (WWII did)
- Paragraph 3: Alternative perspectives – conservatives saw socialist overreach; radicals wanted more redistribution; regional/racial inequalities persisted
- Conclusion: Balanced judgement acknowledging partial success in immediate relief and institutional reform, but incomplete economic recovery
Common mistakes and how to avoid them
Confusing Jim Crow laws with slavery – Jim Crow laws were segregation laws after slavery's abolition. Always specify the post-1877 timeframe and distinguish from earlier slavery.
Oversimplifying the civil rights movement – Avoid presenting it as only Martin Luther King Jr.'s story. Include NAACP legal strategies, student movements, Malcolm X's alternative approaches and grassroots organisers.
Treating the 1920s boom as universal – Remember farmers, African Americans and industrial workers didn't share prosperity equally. Demonstrate awareness of economic inequality underlying the boom.
Blaming Hoover alone for the Depression – The causes were structural (speculation, overproduction, inequality). Hoover's response was inadequate but he didn't cause the crisis. Show understanding of complex causation.
Assuming the New Deal ended the Depression – Unemployment remained high until WWII rearmament. Credit the New Deal for relief and reform but acknowledge its limitations in achieving full recovery.
Writing everything you know rather than answering the question – Focus on the specific question focus (causes, consequences, significance). Select relevant evidence supporting your argument rather than narrating chronologically.
Exam technique for "World Depth Study: The USA in the 20th Century, 1920–73"
Command words determine approach: "Explain why" requires multiple causes with supporting evidence (typically 10 marks). "How far do you agree" demands balanced argument evaluating different perspectives (typically 18 marks). "Describe" needs accurate factual coverage without extensive explanation (6-8 marks).
Structure analytical answers clearly: Begin with focused introduction addressing the question directly. Develop separate paragraphs for each point, using evidence to support arguments. Conclude by weighing different factors or perspectives, showing judgement rather than just summarising.
Deploy precise evidence: Use specific statistics (unemployment 25% in 1933), names (Rosa Parks, Senator McCarthy), dates (Brown v. Board 1954) and events (Little Rock Nine). This demonstrates detailed knowledge and supports analytical points convincingly.
Show causation and linkages: Connect factors using analytical phrases ("This contributed to...", "Consequently...", "However, this was limited by..."). Demonstrate understanding of how events relate rather than listing isolated facts.
Quick revision summary
America transformed dramatically between 1920 and 1973. The 1920s boom ended with the 1929 Crash and Great Depression. Roosevelt's New Deal provided relief and reform but didn't fully restore prosperity. Post-WWII Cold War tensions shaped foreign policy from Truman's containment through Vietnam. The civil rights movement challenged segregation through legal action and direct protest, achieving landmark legislation. Social movements transformed American culture, though inequality persisted. Understanding causes, consequences and interconnections between economic, political and social changes is essential for exam success.