Religion, Peace and Conflict

What you'll learn

This topic examines how Christianity and Islam approach issues of war, violence, peace and reconciliation. You'll explore religious attitudes towards conflict, including when (if ever) violence can be justified, the conditions for just war, and how religious believers work towards peace. Understanding the scriptural basis, theological principles and practical examples is essential for exam success.

Key terms and definitions

Pacifism — The belief that all violence and war is wrong and that conflicts should be resolved peacefully without the use of force.

Just War Theory — A set of criteria used to determine whether going to war is morally justified and how war should be fought ethically.

Holy War — A war fought for religious reasons, believed to be commanded or authorised by God, typically to defend faith or religious believers.

Reconciliation — The process of restoring friendly relations after conflict, bringing individuals or groups back together peacefully.

Weapons of mass destruction (WMD) — Weapons capable of causing widespread devastation and loss of life, including nuclear, chemical and biological weapons.

Terrorism — The unlawful use of violence and intimidation, especially against civilians, to achieve political or religious aims.

Conscientious objector — Someone who refuses to serve in armed forces or bear arms on moral or religious grounds.

Peacemaking — Active efforts to establish peace and prevent conflict through dialogue, negotiation and reconciliation.

Core concepts

Christian attitudes to war and peace

Biblical teachings on peace

Christians traditionally value peace highly, seeing it as central to Jesus' message. Key scriptural foundations include:

• "Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called children of God" (Matthew 5:9)
• Jesus commanded Peter to put away his sword, saying "all who draw the sword will die by the sword" (Matthew 26:52)
• Romans 12:18 instructs believers to "live at peace with everyone"
• The vision of ultimate peace in Isaiah 2:4 where "nation will not take up sword against nation"

Just War Theory in Christianity

Developed by Augustine and Thomas Aquinas, Just War Theory provides conditions under which Christians may participate in warfare:

Jus ad bellum (right to go to war):

• Just cause (e.g., self-defence or protecting innocents)
• Legitimate authority (declared by proper government)
• Right intention (achieving peace, not revenge)
• Last resort (all peaceful options exhausted)
• Probability of success
• Proportionality (benefits outweigh harm)

Jus in bello (right conduct in war):

• Discrimination (distinguish between combatants and civilians)
• Proportionate force (minimum necessary)
• Treatment of prisoners with humanity

Most mainstream Christian denominations (Catholic, Anglican, Methodist) accept Just War Theory, though they interpret it strictly.

Christian pacifism

Some Christians reject all violence based on Jesus' teaching to "love your enemies" (Matthew 5:44) and "turn the other cheek" (Matthew 5:39).

The Quakers (Religious Society of Friends) are the most prominent Christian pacifist group, refusing military service and actively campaigning against war. They believe that of God in everyone makes violence against any person unacceptable.

Other Christians may accept defensive war but oppose weapons of mass destruction because they cannot discriminate between combatants and civilians, violating Just War principles.

Muslim attitudes to war and peace

Islamic teachings on peace

Islam means "submission" and shares a root with salaam (peace). The Qur'an teaches:

• "If they incline to peace, make peace with them" (Surah 8:61)
• Murder is condemned: "whoever kills a person... it is as though he has killed all mankind" (Surah 5:32)
• Peace is the ultimate goal, with conflict only permitted when absolutely necessary

Greater and Lesser Jihad

Jihad means "struggle" or "striving" in the way of Allah. Muslims distinguish between:

• Greater Jihad: The internal spiritual struggle against sin and temptation; striving to live according to Islamic principles
• Lesser Jihad: The external, physical struggle which may include armed defence of Islam when under threat

Lesser Jihad (sometimes called "holy war" though this translation is imprecise) is only permitted under strict conditions.

Conditions for warfare in Islam

The Qur'an permits fighting in specific circumstances:

• Self-defence: "Fight in the cause of Allah those who fight you, but do not transgress limits" (Surah 2:190)
• Defence of religious freedom: protecting Muslims from persecution
• Must be declared by legitimate religious authority
• Must cease when enemy stops fighting
• Proportionate response only
• Non-combatants (women, children, elderly, religious figures) must not be harmed
• Property, crops and animals should be protected
• Treaties must be honoured

These conditions parallel Just War Theory and demonstrate Islam does not permit aggression.

Muslim attitudes to terrorism

Mainstream Islamic scholars universally condemn terrorism because it:

• Targets innocent civilians
• Creates disorder (fitnah) which Islam forbids
• Violates Qur'anic commands to protect life
• Damages the reputation of Islam

However, some extremist groups misuse Islamic texts to justify violence, taking verses out of context and ignoring the conditions for legitimate defensive action.

Weapons of mass destruction

Religious opposition to WMDs

Both Christians and Muslims generally oppose weapons of mass destruction because they:

• Cannot discriminate between combatants and civilians
• Cause disproportionate, indiscriminate destruction
• Have long-term environmental and genetic effects
• Violate the sanctity of human life
• Contradict principles of Just War Theory and Islamic warfare conditions

Christian responses:

• The Catholic Church explicitly condemns nuclear weapons
• The Church of England has called for nuclear disarmament
• Christians support Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND)

Muslim responses:

• Islamic scholars argue WMDs violate Qur'anic limits on warfare
• The indiscriminate nature contradicts requirements to protect non-combatants
• Some Muslim-majority nations have pursued nuclear weapons for defence, creating ethical debates

Peacemaking and reconciliation

Christian peacemaking organisations

• Pax Christi: International Catholic peace movement promoting non-violence
• Christian Peacemaker Teams: Place volunteers in conflict zones to accompany threatened communities
• Corrymeir Community: Scottish ecumenical community focused on reconciliation
• Individual Christians like Desmond Tutu who led South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission

Biblical basis includes Jesus' Great Commandment to "love your neighbour" and the parable of the Good Samaritan, showing love transcends traditional enmities.

Muslim peacemaking efforts

• Islamic Relief: Provides humanitarian aid in conflict zones
• Muslim Peace Fellowship: Promotes Islamic approaches to non-violence
• Imams working in interfaith dialogue to reduce religious tensions
• The Qur'anic principle that "reconciliation is best" (Surah 4:128)

The importance of forgiveness

Both religions emphasise forgiveness as essential for reconciliation:

• Christians pray "forgive us our sins as we forgive those who sin against us" (Lord's Prayer)
• Jesus forgave those crucifying him (Luke 23:34)
• Islam teaches Allah is "Most Forgiving, Most Merciful"
• Muslims are encouraged to forgive others to receive Allah's forgiveness

Forgiveness doesn't mean accepting injustice but releasing hatred that prevents peace.

Violence, victims and protests

Religious attitudes to violent protest

Both religions generally reject violent protest because:

• It harms innocent people
• Peaceful alternatives exist
• Violence breeds more violence
• Religious teachings emphasise peace and justice through lawful means

However, both traditions recognise the right to resist oppression peacefully:

• Martin Luther King Jr. used Christian principles in non-violent civil rights protests
• Gandhi's non-violent resistance influenced many Muslims including Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (the "Frontier Gandhi")

Responsibilities towards victims of war

Religious teachings emphasise caring for war victims:

Christian duties:

• "Whatever you did for the least of these... you did for me" (Matthew 25:40)
• Good Samaritan parable mandates helping those in need
• Supporting refugees fleeing conflict
• Churches provide sanctuary and practical assistance

Muslim duties:

• Zakah (obligatory charity) should support those affected by conflict
• Qur'an commands believers to "give to the near of kin his due, and also to the needy and the wayfarers" (Surah 30:38)
• Protecting and caring for refugees is a religious duty
• Islamic humanitarian organisations provide medical care and relief

Worked examples

Example 1: 2-mark question

Give two reasons why some Christians are pacifists.

Answer:

1. Jesus taught his followers to "love your enemies" and "turn the other cheek," which pacifists interpret as rejecting all violence (Matthew 5:39, 44).
2. The commandment "You shall not murder" (Exodus 20:13) is understood by pacifists to prohibit all killing, including in warfare.

Mark scheme guidance: One mark per valid reason. Must be specific to Christian pacifism, not general peace teachings that even Just War supporters would accept.

Example 2: 5-mark question

Explain two Muslim teachings about jihad.

Answer: One Muslim teaching is that jihad primarily refers to the internal spiritual struggle against sin and temptation, known as the Greater Jihad. This involves striving to live according to Islamic principles, resisting selfish desires, and developing one's character. The Prophet Muhammad described this as the most important form of jihad because it requires constant effort to submit fully to Allah's will.

A second teaching is that the Lesser Jihad, the physical struggle including armed defence, is only permitted under strict conditions. The Qur'an states "Fight in the cause of Allah those who fight you, but do not transgress limits" (Surah 2:190), meaning Muslims may defend themselves when attacked but cannot initiate aggression. This teaching requires proportionate response, protection of civilians, and ceasing when the enemy stops fighting.

Mark scheme guidance: Award 3 marks for first teaching (1 mark identifying teaching, 2 marks development with detail/scriptural reference), 2 marks for second teaching. Must demonstrate understanding of the teaching, not just description.

Example 3: 15-mark question

"Religious believers should never fight in wars." Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.)

Answer structure:

• Introduction: Briefly acknowledge different religious perspectives exist
• Arguments supporting (6-7 marks worth):
  • Pacifist Christians cite Jesus' teaching to love enemies and turn the other cheek
  • Quakers believe there is "that of God" in everyone, making violence unacceptable
  • Jesus refused violence when arrested, demonstrating his rejection of armed resistance
  • Some Muslims emphasise Greater Jihad (internal struggle) as true purpose
  • Modern weapons make discrimination between combatants/civilians impossible
• Arguments opposing (6-7 marks worth):
  • Just War Theory allows Christians to fight in defensive wars to protect innocent people
  • Lesser Jihad permits Muslims to defend their faith and community when attacked
  • Refusing to fight tyranny may allow greater evil to triumph
  • Bible contains examples of God commanding warfare (Old Testament)
  • Protecting the vulnerable may require force as last resort
• Conclusion: Brief personal evaluation showing critical thinking (1 mark)
• SPaG: Spelling, punctuation, grammar (1 mark)

Mark scheme guidance: Level 4 (10-12 marks) requires detailed arguments both ways with religious teaching integrated throughout. Level 5 (13-15) additionally needs perceptive analysis and sophisticated use of sources.

Common mistakes and how to avoid them

• Confusing jihad with terrorism: Jihad means struggle/striving and is primarily spiritual. Don't equate it with extremism; demonstrate understanding of Greater vs Lesser Jihad and the strict conditions for legitimate defensive action.

• Treating all Christians or Muslims as holding identical views: Acknowledge diversity—some Christians are pacifists (Quakers) while others accept Just War Theory (Catholics, Anglicans). Similarly, Muslims interpret jihad differently.

• Using vague references instead of specific teachings: Don't write "Christians believe in peace." Instead cite specific scripture: "Jesus taught 'Blessed are the peacemakers' (Matthew 5:9)" or "The Qur'an commands 'if they incline to peace, make peace with them' (Surah 8:61)."

• Forgetting to apply teachings to the question: Don't just describe what religions teach about war—explain how those teachings answer the specific question about modern weapons, terrorism, protest, etc.

• Writing one-sided arguments on evaluation questions: 15-mark "Discuss" questions require substantial arguments both supporting and opposing the statement. Aim for balanced treatment even if you personally disagree with one side.

• Neglecting real-world examples: Strengthen answers with specific organisations (Pax Christi, Islamic Relief), individuals (Desmond Tutu, Martin Luther King Jr.) or events (Truth and Reconciliation Commission) to demonstrate applied understanding.

Exam technique for "Religion, Peace and Conflict"

• Command word awareness: "Give" requires brief statements (2 marks); "Explain" needs developed points with religious teaching/scripture (5 marks); "Discuss" demands balanced evaluation with integrated religious perspectives (15 marks).

• Structure 5-mark answers in paragraphs: Begin each teaching with a topic sentence, provide scriptural/doctrinal support, then explain its significance. Two well-developed teachings score higher than three superficial ones.

• PEEL for 15-mark questions: Point, Evidence (scripture/teaching), Explain (development), Link (to question). Organise arguments clearly—one paragraph per main point rather than scattered ideas.

• Use comparative phrases: "Similarly, Muslims...", "In contrast, pacifist Christians...", "Both religions agree that..." signals you're showing breadth of understanding and analytical thinking.

Quick revision summary

Religion, Peace and Conflict covers Christian and Muslim attitudes to war, violence and peacemaking. Christians may follow pacifism (Quakers) or Just War Theory, while Muslims distinguish Greater Jihad (spiritual struggle) from Lesser Jihad (defensive warfare under strict conditions). Both religions generally oppose weapons of mass destruction and terrorism for violating principles protecting innocent life. Peacemaking through reconciliation, forgiveness and supporting conflict victims reflects core religious values. Exam success requires specific scriptural citations, acknowledgment of diversity within traditions, and application of teachings to contemporary issues.