What you'll learn
This revision guide covers the human geographical investigations required for Pearson Edexcel International IGCSE Geography, focusing on development patterns and urban issues. You'll examine how development is measured, why inequalities exist between countries, and how urbanisation creates both opportunities and challenges in cities worldwide. These topics form a critical component of Paper 2 and require you to apply geographical skills to real-world contexts.
Key terms and definitions
Development — the process of economic growth, improved quality of life and use of resources to meet human needs. Development is multidimensional, including economic, social, political and environmental factors.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita — the total value of goods and services produced by a country in a year, divided by its population. Measured in US dollars, it indicates average wealth but doesn't show distribution.
Human Development Index (HDI) — a composite indicator measuring life expectancy, education (mean and expected years of schooling) and GNI per capita. Scores range from 0 to 1, with higher values indicating greater development.
Urbanisation — the increasing percentage of people living in urban areas (towns and cities) compared to rural areas. It's calculated as (urban population ÷ total population) × 100.
Urban sprawl — the uncontrolled expansion of urban areas into surrounding rural land, typically characterised by low-density development and increased car dependency.
Squatter settlements — informal housing areas built illegally on land without planning permission, typically lacking basic services like water, sanitation and electricity. Also called informal settlements or shanty towns.
Site — the actual land on which a settlement is built, including its physical characteristics such as altitude, relief, drainage and soil type.
Situation — the location of a settlement in relation to surrounding physical and human features, including proximity to resources, transport routes and other settlements.
Core concepts
Measuring development
Development is measured using various economic, social and demographic indicators, each with distinct advantages and limitations.
Economic indicators:
- GDP per capita indicates average wealth but conceals inequality
- Economic sector balance (primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary) shows structural development
- Energy consumption per capita reflects industrial activity and living standards
Social indicators:
- Literacy rates show educational investment and access
- Life expectancy indicates healthcare quality and living conditions
- Access to safe water reveals infrastructure development
- Infant mortality rate demonstrates healthcare effectiveness
Composite indicators:
- HDI combines life expectancy, education and income into a single measure
- Provides more balanced assessment than single indicators
- Values: 0.800+ = very high development; 0.550-0.699 = medium development; below 0.550 = low development
Patterns of development inequality
Global development patterns reveal persistent inequalities between and within countries.
The development gap describes disparities between more economically developed countries (MEDCs) and less economically developed countries (LEDCs). Newly industrialising countries (NICs) like China and India occupy intermediate positions.
Physical factors affecting development:
- Landlocked countries face higher transport costs and limited trade access (e.g. Chad, Bolivia)
- Climate extremes limit agricultural productivity and infrastructure development
- Natural hazards destroy infrastructure and divert resources to reconstruction
- Resource availability can accelerate development if properly managed (oil in UAE) or cause conflict (Democratic Republic of Congo)
Human and historical factors:
- Colonial legacy left some countries economically dependent on primary exports
- Political instability disrupts investment and development
- Conflict destroys infrastructure and displaces populations
- Trade relationships may disadvantage producers of primary products
- Investment in education and healthcare drives long-term development
Strategies for reducing development inequalities
Countries and international organisations employ various approaches to reduce development gaps.
Aid programmes:
- Bilateral aid flows directly between governments
- Multilateral aid distributed through organisations like the UN or World Bank
- Short-term emergency aid responds to disasters
- Long-term development aid funds infrastructure, education and healthcare
Trade initiatives:
- Fair trade schemes guarantee minimum prices for producers
- Trade agreements reduce tariffs between countries
- Technology transfer programmes share expertise
- Debt relief frees resources for development investment
Bottom-up development projects involve local communities in planning and implementation:
- Appropriate technology matches local skills and resources
- Small-scale initiatives create sustainable change
- Example: micro-finance schemes providing small loans to entrepreneurs
- Improved water supplies reduce disease and increase productivity
Top-down development projects involve large-scale government or international investment:
- Major infrastructure like dams, roads or ports
- Can transform economies rapidly
- Risk: may not benefit local communities directly
- Example: Three Gorges Dam in China generated hydroelectric power but displaced 1.3 million people
Global urbanisation patterns
Urbanisation rates and patterns vary significantly between regions and countries at different development stages.
MEDCs:
- Already highly urbanised (80-90% urban population)
- Slow urbanisation rates, some experiencing counter-urbanisation
- Examples: UK 84% urban, USA 83% urban
LEDCs and NICs:
- Rapid urbanisation from lower bases
- Urban growth rates often 3-5% annually
- Examples: Nigeria urbanising rapidly from 52% (2020), India at 35% urban but fast-growing cities
Megacities are urban areas with over 10 million inhabitants:
- Number increasing, especially in Asia and Latin America
- Tokyo (37 million), Delhi (31 million), Shanghai (27 million)
- Create unique governance and sustainability challenges
Push factors driving rural-urban migration:
- Agricultural mechanisation reducing labour demand
- Land degradation and poor harvests
- Lack of services (schools, healthcare)
- Limited employment opportunities
- Natural disasters and conflict
Pull factors attracting people to cities:
- Employment opportunities in manufacturing and services
- Better education and healthcare access
- Infrastructure and services (water, electricity)
- Perceived higher living standards
- Entertainment and cultural opportunities
Urban issues in LEDCs
Rapid urbanisation in LEDCs creates significant challenges for urban management and planning.
Housing challenges:
- Squatter settlements develop on marginal land (steep slopes, floodplains)
- Lack formal tenure, so residents cannot access credit for improvements
- Self-built housing using scrap materials
- Examples: Dharavi in Mumbai (India), Kibera in Nairobi (Kenya)
- Gradual improvements possible through self-help schemes
Infrastructure deficits:
- Inadequate water supply forces residents to buy expensive water from vendors
- Open sewers spread waterborne diseases (cholera, typhoid)
- Uncollected waste creates health hazards
- Insufficient electricity supply
- Traffic congestion from inadequate road networks
Squatter settlement improvement strategies:
- Site-and-service schemes provide plots with basic infrastructure; residents build own homes
- Self-help schemes provide building materials and technical support
- Slum upgrading programmes add services to existing settlements rather than demolition
- Advantages: community involvement, cost-effective, allows gradual improvement
- Challenges: funding constraints, coordination difficulties, maintaining standards
Urban issues in MEDCs
Cities in MEDCs face different challenges related to deindustrialisation, suburbanisation and environmental sustainability.
Inner city decline:
- Closure of traditional industries creates unemployment
- Out-migration of skilled workers and businesses
- Deteriorating housing stock
- Increased deprivation and social problems
- Examples: parts of Manchester, Liverpool, Detroit (USA)
Urban regeneration strategies:
- Property-led regeneration attracts private investment through flagship developments
- Example: London Docklands (Canary Wharf) transformed former industrial area
- Community-led regeneration involves local residents in planning
- Mixed-use developments combine residential, commercial and recreational spaces
Suburbanisation and urban sprawl:
- Growth of residential areas on city edges
- Increased car dependency
- Loss of greenfield sites
- Pressure on rural-urban fringe
- Infrastructure strain (schools, roads, utilities)
Sustainable urban living:
- Brownfield site development recycles derelict land
- Green spaces improve air quality and recreation
- Public transport investment reduces congestion and emissions
- Energy-efficient buildings reduce carbon footprints
- Waste recycling programmes minimise landfill
Contemporary urban challenges
Modern cities face issues requiring integrated planning approaches.
Traffic congestion:
- Economic costs from lost productivity
- Air pollution damages health
- Solutions: congestion charging (London), park-and-ride schemes, cycle lanes, improved public transport
Urban microclimate:
- Urban heat island effect — cities 3-5°C warmer than surrounding rural areas
- Caused by heat absorption by concrete, lack of vegetation, vehicle emissions
- Exacerbates heatwaves and energy demand for cooling
Waste management:
- Increasing volumes challenge disposal capacity
- Recycling rates vary: Germany 68%, UK 46%
- Incineration with energy recovery reduces landfill
- Circular economy approaches minimise waste generation
Worked examples
Example 1: Calculate urbanisation rate and identify pattern (4 marks)
Country X has a total population of 50 million. 35 million people live in urban areas. Calculate the urbanisation rate and describe the pattern.
Answer: Calculation: (35 million ÷ 50 million) × 100 = 70% (1 mark)
Pattern: Country X is 70% urbanised, which is relatively high (1 mark). This suggests it is an MEDC or advanced NIC (1 mark) where the majority of the population has already moved to urban areas, possibly indicating slowing urbanisation rates (1 mark).
Example 2: Explain strategies to reduce the development gap (6 marks)
Explain how aid programmes can help reduce the development gap between countries.
Answer: Aid can improve infrastructure such as roads and ports (1 mark), which enables trade and economic growth (1 mark). Development aid funding education increases literacy rates and skills (1 mark), creating a more productive workforce that attracts investment (1 mark). Healthcare aid reduces infant mortality and increases life expectancy (1 mark), improving quality of life and economic productivity (1 mark).
Note: Good answers link the strategy to specific development outcomes with explanation.
Example 3: Evaluate urban improvement strategies in LEDCs (8 marks)
Evaluate the success of different strategies used to improve the quality of life in squatter settlements.
Answer structure:
- Introduce multiple strategies (site-and-service, self-help schemes, slum upgrading)
- For each strategy, explain the approach and give advantages (e.g., self-help schemes empower residents, are cost-effective)
- Identify limitations (e.g., require ongoing funding, may not reach all residents)
- Use a named example to illustrate (e.g., Favela Bairro Project in Rio de Janeiro)
- Conclude with balanced judgement about which approaches are most effective and why
- Evaluation requires weighing positives against negatives, not just describing
Common mistakes and how to avoid them
Confusing GDP with GDP per capita — always use per capita figures when comparing countries of different sizes. Total GDP measures economic size; per capita shows average wealth.
Describing instead of explaining — questions asking "explain" or "suggest reasons why" require causes and consequences, not just features. Use connectives: "because," "which leads to," "as a result."
Using vague or outdated terminology — avoid "Third World" or "developing world." Use MEDC, LEDC, NIC, or LIC (low-income country) with precision. Squatter settlements, not "slums" unless specified.
Neglecting to use named examples — questions worth 6+ marks usually require specific places. Learn at least two case studies each for LEDC cities, MEDC cities, and development strategies. Include names, locations, and specific details.
Mixing up push and pull factors — push factors are negative conditions driving people away from origin; pull factors are attractions drawing people to destinations. Unemployment is a push; jobs are a pull.
Ignoring command words — "assess," "evaluate" and "to what extent" require judgement and balance; "describe" needs features without explanation; "explain" requires reasons and consequences. Read the question twice.
Exam technique for Human Geographical Investigations: Development and Urban Issues
Command word recognition: "Describe" = identify features/patterns (no explanation needed). "Explain" = give reasons using because/therefore. "Assess/Evaluate" = weigh up advantages and disadvantages, reach a judgement. "Suggest" = apply understanding to unfamiliar contexts, justify your reasoning.
Use the mark scheme formula: For explain/suggest questions, typically 1 mark for a simple statement + 1 mark for development/explanation. Aim for 3-4 developed points for a 6-mark question. Extended writing (8-12 marks) requires multiple paragraphs, named examples, and evaluation.
Resource interpretation: Questions often include data tables, graphs, or photographs. Quote specific figures or features from the resource, then explain significance. Don't just describe what's shown—use it as evidence for your geographical explanation.
Structure extended answers: Introduction stating your argument, separate paragraphs for different points (each with examples), conclusion summarising your judgement. Use geographical terminology throughout and refer to named places and case studies to demonstrate knowledge.
Quick revision summary
Development is measured through economic indicators (GDP per capita), social indicators (literacy, life expectancy) and composite measures (HDI). The development gap persists due to physical factors (landlocked locations, climate), historical factors (colonialism) and human factors (conflict, trade inequalities). Reduction strategies include aid, fair trade and bottom-up or top-down projects. Urbanisation proceeds rapidly in LEDCs driven by push-pull factors, creating challenges like squatter settlements requiring site-and-service or self-help improvement schemes. MEDC cities face issues from deindustrialisation, requiring regeneration, and environmental challenges demanding sustainable solutions.