What you'll learn
Personal morality examines how religious and non-religious beliefs influence individual choices about relationships, sexuality, and family life. This topic requires you to understand and evaluate different religious perspectives on marriage, divorce, contraception, and sexual relationships, as well as contemporary ethical debates surrounding these issues.
Key terms and definitions
Personal morality — the system of values and principles that guide an individual's behaviour in private life, particularly concerning relationships and sexuality
Cohabitation — living together in a sexual relationship without being married
Adultery — voluntary sexual intercourse between a married person and someone who is not their spouse
Procreation — the biological process of conceiving children; reproduction
Natural law — the belief that certain moral principles are inherent in human nature and can be discovered through reason
Sanctity of marriage — the religious belief that marriage is sacred and holy, established by God
Civil partnership — a legally recognised union between two people (originally same-sex couples) that grants similar legal rights to marriage
Heterosexual — sexually attracted to people of the opposite sex
Core concepts
Christian perspectives on marriage and divorce
Christianity traditionally views marriage as a sacred covenant between one man, one woman, and God. Most denominations teach that marriage should be:
- Permanent — "what God has joined together, let no one separate" (Mark 10:9)
- Exclusive — monogamous and faithful
- Loving — reflecting Christ's love for the Church
- For procreation — open to having children
Catholic teaching on divorce:
- Marriage is a sacrament that cannot be dissolved
- Divorce is not permitted; the marriage bond remains even after civil divorce
- Annulment may be granted if the Church determines the marriage was never valid
- Remarriage after divorce is considered adultery
- Based on Jesus's teaching: "Anyone who divorces his wife and marries another woman commits adultery" (Luke 16:18)
Protestant perspectives on divorce:
- Most Protestant denominations permit divorce in certain circumstances
- The Church of England allows divorce and may permit remarriage in church
- Some accept Jesus's exception clause: divorce permitted in cases of adultery (Matthew 19:9)
- Many recognise that forgiveness and new beginnings align with Christian values
- Focus on pastoral care for those experiencing marital breakdown
Arguments for the Christian view:
- Biblical authority supports lifelong marriage
- Provides stability for children and society
- Reflects God's unchanging covenant love
- Protects the vulnerable from abandonment
Arguments against:
- May trap people in abusive or destructive relationships
- Forgiveness and grace are central Christian values
- Context of biblical teachings differs from modern society
- Causes suffering to deny remarriage to divorced people
Islamic perspectives on marriage and divorce
Islam regards marriage (nikah) as a sacred contract and a religious duty for most Muslims. Marriage is seen as completing half of one's faith.
Islamic marriage principles:
- Requires consent from both parties
- Involves a mahr (dowry) given by the groom to the bride
- Witnessed by at least two witnesses
- Creates legal rights and responsibilities
- Encourages procreation and family life
- Protects against zina (unlawful sexual relations)
Islamic divorce (talaq):
- Permitted but described as "the most hated of lawful things" by Muhammad
- Husband may pronounce talaq three times with waiting periods between
- Wife may request divorce (khul) or include divorce rights in marriage contract
- Iddah (waiting period of three menstrual cycles) must be observed
- Financial responsibilities continue; children typically remain with mother
- Remarriage is permitted after divorce
Reasons divorce is accepted:
- Recognises human fallibility and changing circumstances
- Prevents greater harm in incompatible marriages
- Protects individual rights while maintaining moral framework
- Qur'an provides detailed guidance: "Divorce is twice. Then, either keep her in an acceptable manner or release her with good treatment" (Qur'an 2:229)
Sexual relationships and cohabitation
Religious traditions have specific teachings about when sexual relationships are appropriate.
Christianity:
- Sex is a gift from God designed for marriage
- Fornication (sex before marriage) and adultery are sins
- Catholic Church teaches sex must be open to procreation
- Some liberal Christians accept cohabitation as preparation for marriage
- Increasing numbers of Christians cohabit despite traditional teaching
- Biblical references: "Flee from sexual immorality" (1 Corinthians 6:18)
Islam:
- Sex outside marriage (zina) is a major sin with severe punishment
- Applies equally to men and women
- Marriage is the only lawful context for sexual relations
- Cohabitation is completely forbidden
- Protects family structures and prevents illegitimate children
- Qur'an states: "Do not go near adultery. It is indeed a shameful deed and an evil way" (17:32)
Secular perspectives:
- Emphasise consent, safety, and mutual respect rather than marriage
- Cohabitation widely accepted in Western societies
- Focus on relationship quality rather than legal status
- Personal choice valued over religious prescriptions
Homosexuality and same-sex relationships
This remains one of the most divisive issues within religious communities.
Conservative religious views:
- Bible passages condemn homosexual acts (Leviticus 18:22, Romans 1:26-27)
- Catholic Church distinguishes between orientation (not sinful) and acts (sinful)
- Traditional Islam forbids homosexual acts based on story of Lot
- Marriage defined as between man and woman only
- Some advocate celibacy for those with same-sex attraction
Liberal religious views:
- Biblical texts reflect historical context, not timeless commands
- Jesus never directly addressed homosexuality
- Love and committed relationships should be celebrated regardless of gender
- Some Christian denominations conduct same-sex marriages
- Growing number of Muslims support LGBTQ+ rights while remaining faithful
- Emphasis on "Love your neighbour" and anti-discrimination
Legal and social context:
- Same-sex marriage legal in UK (2013), parts of Caribbean
- Civil partnerships available since 2004
- Many countries still criminalise homosexuality
- Religious freedom vs. equality rights creates ongoing tensions
Contraception and family planning
Religious attitudes towards contraception vary significantly.
Catholic teaching:
- All artificial contraception is forbidden
- Only natural family planning (NFP) methods permitted
- Based on natural law — every sexual act must be open to procreation
- Humanae Vitae (1968) reaffirmed this teaching
- Separating unitive and procreative purposes of sex is wrong
- Concerns about contraception encouraging promiscuity
Other Christian views:
- Most Protestant denominations accept contraception
- Seen as responsible family planning
- Allows couples to space children appropriately
- Prevents poverty and enables better childcare
- Anglican Church approved contraception in 1930 (Lambeth Conference)
Islamic perspectives:
- Majority of scholars permit contraception
- Should be decided by mutual consent between spouses
- Permanent contraception (sterilisation) more controversial
- Preservation of life is paramount; contraception protects mother's health
- Withdrawal method mentioned in hadith suggests permissibility
- Family planning acceptable but abortion generally forbidden
Arguments supporting contraception:
- Responsible parenthood and child welfare
- Women's health and autonomy
- Environmental concerns about overpopulation
- Economic realities of raising children
- Prevents spread of sexually transmitted infections
Arguments opposing contraception:
- Interferes with God's plan for creation
- May encourage sexual promiscuity
- Could lead to population decline
- Separates sex from its natural purpose
- Potential health risks from hormonal methods
Contemporary ethical issues
Pre-marital sex:
- Increasingly common in Western societies
- Most religions maintain it is wrong
- Young people often reject traditional restrictions
- Concern about sexually transmitted infections and teenage pregnancy
- Debate over abstinence education vs. comprehensive sex education
Polygamy:
- Islam permits men to marry up to four wives with conditions (equal treatment, financial ability)
- Qur'an 4:3 suggests monogamy preferable if cannot treat equally
- Christianity teaches monogamy based on Genesis and Jesus's teaching
- Illegal in UK and most Western countries
- Cultural practice in some societies distinct from religious permission
Age of consent and safeguarding:
- Religious values emphasise protection of minors
- UK age of consent is 16
- Forced marriage prohibited in Islam and Christianity
- Religious communities must balance traditional practices with child protection
Worked examples
Example 1: AO1 Question (4 marks) Describe Muslim attitudes towards divorce.
Mark scheme approach:
- Award 1 mark for each correct point
- Maximum 4 marks
Model answer: Muslims believe divorce (talaq) is permitted but disliked by Allah (1 mark). The husband can pronounce divorce three times with waiting periods between (1 mark). The wife must observe iddah, a waiting period of three months (1 mark). The Qur'an states divorce should be done with fairness and good treatment (1 mark). Muslims may seek reconciliation through family mediation before divorce becomes final (1 mark - accept any 4).
Example 2: AO2 Question (8 marks) "Religious people should not use contraception." Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.)
Mark scheme approach:
- Level 4 (7-8 marks): Detailed evaluation, range of perspectives, religious references
- Level 3 (5-6 marks): Good evaluation, some perspectives, some religious references
- Level 2 (3-4 marks): Simple evaluation, limited perspectives
- Level 1 (1-2 marks): Basic opinion
Model answer: The Catholic Church would strongly agree with this statement because it teaches that all artificial contraception is wrong. Catholics believe every sexual act must be open to procreation according to natural law, and using contraception separates the unitive and procreative purposes of sex, which goes against God's design. Pope Paul VI's encyclical Humanae Vitae (1968) clearly forbids contraception, and Catholics should only use natural family planning methods.
However, most Protestant Christians would disagree with the statement. They accept contraception as responsible family planning that allows couples to care properly for their children. The Church of England accepted contraception at the 1930 Lambeth Conference, recognising that responsible parenthood sometimes requires limiting family size due to financial constraints or health concerns. This shows love for existing children.
Similarly, the majority of Islamic scholars permit contraception, provided both spouses consent. Contraception can protect the mother's health and allow proper spacing between children, which aligns with Islamic principles of preserving life. The Prophet Muhammad did not forbid withdrawal, suggesting contraception itself is not inherently wrong.
In conclusion, while the Catholic Church maintains opposition to contraception, most other religious traditions accept it as compatible with faith when used responsibly within marriage. The statement is too absolute because it ignores these important differences between religious traditions.
Example 3: AO1 Question (5 marks) Explain two Christian teachings about marriage. Refer to sacred writings or another source of Christian belief and teaching in your answer.
Mark scheme approach:
- 2 marks for each teaching explained
- 1 additional mark for each reference to sacred writing (maximum 2)
Model answer: One Christian teaching is that marriage is permanent and should last until death (1 mark). Jesus taught "what God has joined together, let no one separate" (Mark 10:9), showing that marriage is a lifelong commitment that cannot be broken (1 mark for reference).
Another teaching is that marriage should be between one man and one woman (1 mark). Genesis 2:24 states "a man leaves his father and mother and is united to his wife," establishing the pattern for heterosexual, monogamous marriage (1 mark for reference). This reflects God's design for procreation and family life (1 mark).
Common mistakes and how to avoid them
Confusing different Christian denominations — Don't write "Christians believe..." when views differ significantly. Specify Catholic, Protestant, or Orthodox when teachings vary.
Providing only one perspective on AO2 questions — You must discuss multiple viewpoints to access higher mark bands. Always include "However..." or "On the other hand..." paragraphs.
Forgetting sacred text references — When questions ask you to "refer to sacred writings," you must include specific quotations or references to Qur'an, Bible, etc. Generic statements won't earn these marks.
Writing about non-religious views when not required — Unless the question specifically mentions "religion and non-religion" or "non-religious beliefs," focus on religious perspectives.
Being unclear about your own conclusion — AO2 questions reward evaluation. End with a clear conclusion that weighs the arguments, even if balanced.
Outdated or inaccurate information — Know current legal contexts (e.g., same-sex marriage legal in UK since 2013, civil partnerships since 2004).
Exam technique for "Religion and Ethics: Personal Morality"
Identify AO1 vs. AO2 questions — AO1 tests knowledge (describe, explain, outline); AO2 tests evaluation (discuss, evaluate, "to what extent"). AO1 needs facts and explanations; AO2 needs arguments and judgements.
Use PEEL for extended answers — Point, Evidence (scripture/teaching), Explanation, Link back to question. This ensures developed answers that access higher mark bands.
Plan AO2 responses — Spend 1-2 minutes noting arguments for/against before writing. Aim for 2-3 perspectives with religious references, then a reasoned conclusion.
Time management — Allocate marks = minutes roughly. A 4-mark question needs about 4 minutes; an 8-mark question needs 8-10 minutes including planning.
Quick revision summary
Personal morality examines how religious beliefs guide choices about relationships and sexuality. Christianity and Islam both uphold marriage as sacred but differ on divorce, with Catholics forbidding it while Protestants and Muslims permit it in certain circumstances. Most religions teach sex belongs within marriage and oppose cohabitation. Views on homosexuality divide conservative and liberal believers. Catholics forbid artificial contraception; most Protestants and Muslims accept it. Contemporary issues include pre-marital sex, same-sex marriage, and balancing traditional teachings with modern contexts. Know specific teachings, sacred texts, and multiple perspectives for evaluation questions.