What you'll learn
This revision guide covers urbanisation and changing cities as examined in WJEC GCSE Geography. You will understand the global patterns of urban growth, the reasons behind rapid urbanisation in lower income countries, and the contrasting urban challenges facing cities in different stages of development. You will also explore sustainable urban strategies and case study examples required for the examination.
Key terms and definitions
Urbanisation — The increasing percentage of a country's population living in towns and cities, typically involving migration from rural to urban areas.
Megacity — An urban area with a population exceeding 10 million people; examples include Mumbai, Tokyo, and Mexico City.
Counter-urbanisation — The movement of people from major urban areas to smaller settlements and rural locations, common in higher income countries.
Suburbanisation — The outward growth of urban areas into the surrounding countryside, creating residential zones on city edges.
Urban sprawl — The uncontrolled expansion of urban areas into rural land, often characterised by low-density development and car dependency.
Informal settlements — Housing areas (often called slums or shanty towns) constructed illegally on land not owned by inhabitants, typically lacking basic services.
Urban regeneration — The redevelopment and improvement of run-down urban areas through social, economic, and environmental investment.
Sustainable city — An urban area designed to meet current needs without compromising future generations' ability to meet theirs, balancing environmental, social, and economic factors.
Core concepts
Global urbanisation patterns
Urbanisation rates vary significantly across the world based on economic development:
Higher Income Countries (HICs)
- High urbanisation levels already achieved (75-90% urban population)
- Slow rates of urbanisation or even counter-urbanisation
- Examples: UK (83% urban), USA (82% urban), Japan (92% urban)
- Urban growth driven by natural increase rather than rural-urban migration
Lower Income Countries (LICs) and Newly Emerging Economies (NEEs)
- Rapid urbanisation currently occurring
- Urban populations growing at 3-5% annually in some regions
- Africa and Asia experiencing fastest rates
- Examples: Nigeria's urban population grew from 23% (1975) to 52% (2020)
- Majority of megacities now located in LICs and NEEs
Key statistics to remember:
- 1950: 30% of global population lived in urban areas
- 2020: 56% of global population urban
- 2050 (projected): 68% of global population urban
Causes of urbanisation
Rural push factors driving people from countryside:
- Agricultural mechanisation reducing farm labour needs
- Lack of services (healthcare, education) in rural areas
- Natural disasters (droughts, floods) affecting farming
- Land degradation and soil exhaustion
- Limited economic opportunities
- Political instability in some regions
Urban pull factors attracting people to cities:
- Greater employment opportunities in factories and services
- Higher wages compared to rural incomes
- Better access to education and healthcare
- Improved infrastructure (water, electricity, transport)
- Perceived better quality of life
- Family and community networks already established in cities
Natural increase also contributes to urban growth:
- Young migrants have children in cities
- Better healthcare reduces infant mortality
- Birth rates remain high in developing world cities
- Creates sustained population growth even without further migration
Urban challenges in lower income countries
Housing challenges:
- Insufficient formal housing for rapid population growth
- Development of informal settlements on marginal land (steep slopes, floodplains)
- Overcrowding with families sharing single rooms
- Lack of land tenure security leads to constant threat of eviction
- Building materials often temporary (wood, corrugated iron, plastic)
Infrastructure deficits:
- Inadequate clean water supply — reliance on standpipes or contaminated sources
- Limited sewerage systems causing disease spread
- Unreliable electricity supplies or no connection to grid
- Poor road networks creating traffic congestion
- Insufficient public transport requiring long commutes
Environmental issues:
- Air pollution from vehicle emissions and industrial activity
- Water pollution from untreated sewage and industrial waste
- Solid waste accumulation in streets and waterways
- Loss of green space to development
- Increased flood risk from impermeable surfaces
Social challenges:
- High unemployment and underemployment rates
- Crime rates elevated due to poverty and inequality
- Limited access to quality education
- Healthcare services overwhelmed by demand
- Widening gap between rich and poor residents
Urban challenges in higher income countries
Urban decay and deprivation:
- Deindustrialisation leaving derelict buildings and brownfield sites
- Inner-city areas experiencing economic decline
- Out-migration of wealthier residents to suburbs
- Concentrated poverty and social problems
- Examples: Former industrial cities like parts of Birmingham, Liverpool, Newcastle
Traffic and transport issues:
- Congestion causing delays and economic losses
- Air quality problems from vehicle emissions
- Pressure on public transport during peak times
- Parking shortages in city centres
- Road accidents and safety concerns
Housing pressures:
- Shortage of affordable housing in popular cities
- High property prices excluding lower-income groups
- Gentrification displacing long-term residents
- Homelessness in major urban centres
Environmental concerns:
- Urban heat island effect raising temperatures
- Limited green space for recreation
- Waste management challenges
- Noise pollution affecting quality of life
Urban opportunities
Economic opportunities in cities:
- Concentration of businesses and industries
- Access to labour force and markets
- Innovation hubs and technology sectors
- Formal and informal employment options
- Higher wages than rural areas
Social and cultural benefits:
- Educational institutions and universities
- Healthcare facilities including specialist services
- Cultural venues (theatres, museums, galleries)
- Diverse communities and cultural exchange
- Entertainment and leisure facilities
Urban multiplier effect:
- Initial investment creates jobs
- Workers spend wages in local economy
- Increased demand for goods and services
- Further employment creation
- Rising tax revenue enabling infrastructure improvement
Sustainable urban management strategies
Improving informal settlements:
- Site-and-service schemes providing serviced plots
- Self-help schemes supporting residents to improve homes
- Providing secure land tenure encouraging investment
- Installing basic infrastructure (water, sewerage, electricity)
- Example: Favela Bairro project in Rio de Janeiro improved housing for 500,000 residents
Sustainable transport solutions:
- Integrated public transport networks (buses, trams, metro systems)
- Cycling infrastructure (dedicated lanes, bike-sharing schemes)
- Pedestrianisation of city centres
- Park-and-ride schemes reducing city centre traffic
- Congestion charging (London C-Charge reduced traffic by 15%)
Energy efficiency measures:
- Green building standards requiring insulation and efficient systems
- Renewable energy installation (solar panels, wind turbines)
- Combined heat and power systems
- LED street lighting reducing consumption
- Smart grids managing energy distribution
Waste management:
- Recycling programmes with separated collections
- Waste-to-energy incineration plants
- Composting organic waste
- Reducing landfill usage
- Circular economy principles
Water conservation:
- Rainwater harvesting systems
- Grey water recycling for non-potable uses
- Permeable surfaces reducing runoff
- Water-efficient appliances and fixtures
- Leak detection and repair programmes
Creating green spaces:
- Parks and gardens for recreation and biodiversity
- Green roofs and walls reducing heat and improving insulation
- Urban forests absorbing carbon dioxide
- Allotments for food growing
- Wildlife corridors connecting habitats
Worked examples
Example 1: Explain two push factors that cause rural-urban migration in lower income countries. [4 marks]
Model answer: One push factor is the lack of employment opportunities in rural areas [1]. Agricultural mechanisation means fewer farm workers are needed, forcing people to seek work elsewhere [1].
Another push factor is poor access to services such as healthcare and education [1]. Rural areas often lack schools and medical facilities, encouraging families to move to cities where these services are available [1].
Examiner guidance: Each push factor needs to be clearly stated (1 mark) and then developed with explanation or example (1 mark). Avoid simply listing factors without development.
Example 2: Study the table showing urbanisation rates in different countries. Suggest reasons for the differences shown. [6 marks]
| Country | % Urban 1990 | % Urban 2020 |
|---|---|---|
| UK | 78% | 83% |
| Nigeria | 35% | 52% |
Model answer: The UK shows a much smaller increase (5%) compared to Nigeria (17%) because the UK is a higher income country that urbanised during the Industrial Revolution [1], meaning most people already lived in cities by 1990 [1]. The UK has reached a mature stage of urbanisation where rates slow down [1].
Nigeria shows rapid urbanisation because it is a newly emerging economy experiencing industrialisation now [1]. Large numbers of people are migrating from rural areas seeking employment in cities like Lagos [1], driven by push factors such as poverty and drought in rural areas and pull factors including better job opportunities [1].
Examiner guidance: Use the data provided to support your explanation. Make clear comparisons between the examples and link to development levels.
Example 3: Evaluate the success of strategies used to improve quality of life in cities in lower income countries. [9 marks + 3 SPaG]
Model answer: Self-help schemes have been successful in improving informal settlements by providing residents with building materials and technical advice to improve their homes [1]. In Rio de Janeiro's Favela Bairro project, residents upgraded their own houses with better materials, creating more permanent structures [1]. This is successful because it is affordable for governments with limited budgets and residents gain skills [1]. However, progress can be slow as residents work part-time on improvements and some may lack construction knowledge [1].
Installing basic infrastructure such as clean water and sewerage systems has significantly improved health in informal settlements [1]. Providing standpipes and toilets reduces waterborne diseases like cholera and dysentery [1]. This is successful because it addresses immediate health threats affecting thousands of people [1]. However, infrastructure projects are expensive and may only reach parts of large settlements, leaving some areas unimproved [1].
Overall, these strategies have had considerable success in improving quality of life through better housing and health [1]. However, they cannot solve all problems as cities continue growing rapidly, creating new informal settlements faster than improvements can be made [1]. Long-term success requires combined approaches addressing housing, infrastructure, employment and education together [1].
Examiner guidance: Evaluation questions require you to weigh up positives and negatives, providing evidence and reaching a judgement. Include specific examples and consider both successes and limitations. SPaG marks awarded for accurate spelling, punctuation, and grammar.
Common mistakes and how to avoid them
Confusing urbanisation with urban growth — Urbanisation refers to the percentage of population living in urban areas increasing, while urban growth is simply the increase in size of cities. A city can grow while urbanisation rates slow if rural areas grow at similar rates.
Providing only generic factors without development — In explain questions, stating "better jobs" is insufficient. Develop this: "better employment opportunities in manufacturing and service industries offering higher wages than agricultural work in rural areas."
Mixing up HIC and LIC urban challenges — Be specific about which challenges apply to which context. Informal settlements are predominantly an LIC/NEE issue, while deindustrialisation and urban decay are typically HIC challenges.
Forgetting to use case study detail — Questions asking about "a named example" or "a city you have studied" require specific place names, statistics, and detailed strategies. Generic answers cannot access top mark bands.
Not balancing evaluation answers — When asked to "assess" or "evaluate," you must consider both positives and negatives before reaching a conclusion. One-sided answers are incomplete.
Ignoring command words — "Describe" requires you to say what something is like, "explain" requires reasons why, and "assess" requires weighing up. Tailor your answer to the command word used.
Exam technique for "Changing Cities: Urbanisation"
Learn specific case studies thoroughly — WJEC requires detailed knowledge of named examples. Know at least one rapidly urbanising city in an LIC/NEE (e.g., Lagos, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro) and one sustainable urban management example. Include specific place names, statistics, and named strategies.
Use geographical terminology accurately — Incorporate key terms like urbanisation, megacity, informal settlements, and urban regeneration. This demonstrates geographical knowledge and helps access higher mark bands.
Structure extended answers clearly — For 6 and 9 mark questions, write in paragraphs with clear points. Use connectives like "furthermore," "however," and "in contrast" to link ideas. Include an introduction and conclusion for 9 mark answers.
Allocate time according to marks — Roughly one minute per mark. A 4-mark question needs approximately 4 minutes; a 9-mark question needs 9-10 minutes. Don't spend excessive time on low-mark questions at the expense of extended answers.
Quick revision summary
Urbanisation is the increasing proportion of people living in urban areas, occurring most rapidly in LICs and NEEs due to rural-urban migration (driven by push and pull factors) and natural increase. Cities face context-specific challenges: LICs struggle with informal settlements, infrastructure deficits and environmental degradation, while HICs experience urban decay, congestion and housing shortages. Sustainable management strategies include improving informal settlements through self-help schemes, developing integrated transport systems, implementing waste recycling, and creating green spaces. Successful urban management requires balancing environmental, social and economic needs for current and future generations.