Global Development and Inequality

What you'll learn

This revision guide covers global development and inequality as examined in WJEC GCSE Geography. You'll understand how development is measured, why countries develop at different rates, and the consequences of global inequality. These topics form a crucial component of your examination, particularly in questions about quality of life, development indicators, and strategies to reduce the development gap.

Key terms and definitions

Development — the progress of a country in terms of economic growth, use of technology, and improvement in people's quality of life

GDP (Gross Domestic Product) — the total value of goods and services produced by a country in one year, often expressed per capita (per person)

Human Development Index (HDI) — a composite indicator measuring a country's achievements in life expectancy, education, and income

Life expectancy — the average number of years a person born in a country can expect to live

Infant mortality rate — the number of babies per 1000 live births that die before their first birthday

Literacy rate — the percentage of adults (usually aged 15+) who can read and write

Birth rate — the number of live births per 1000 people per year

Death rate — the number of deaths per 1000 people per year

Core concepts

Measuring development

Development can be measured using economic, social, and composite indicators. Each type provides different insights into a country's progress.

Economic indicators focus on wealth and money:

• GDP per capita shows average income but doesn't reveal wealth distribution
• GNI (Gross National Income) includes overseas earnings
• Economic sector employment percentages (primary, secondary, tertiary)

Social indicators measure quality of life:

• Life expectancy reflects healthcare quality and nutrition
• Infant mortality rate indicates healthcare provision for mothers and babies
• Literacy rate shows education access and quality
• Access to clean water and sanitation
• Doctors per 1000 people
• Calorie intake per person per day

Composite indicators combine multiple measures:

• HDI ranks countries from 0 (lowest development) to 1 (highest development)
• Combines life expectancy, education (years of schooling), and GNI per capita
• Provides a more balanced picture than single indicators
• Norway, Switzerland, and Ireland typically rank highest; Niger, Chad, and South Sudan lowest

Patterns of global inequality

Development is uneven across the world, creating a development gap between richer and poorer nations.

Classification systems:

• High Income Countries (HICs): developed nations like the UK, USA, Japan
• Low Income Countries (LICs): least developed nations like Afghanistan, Democratic Republic of Congo
• Newly Emerging Economies (NEEs): rapidly developing nations like China, India, Brazil, Mexico

Global patterns:

• Most HICs located in North America, Europe, and Oceania
• Most LICs concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa
• NEEs include the BRICS nations (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa)
• The development gap exists between countries and within countries

Regional variations within countries:

• Urban areas typically more developed than rural areas
• Capital cities often have higher incomes and better services
• Example: In India, Mumbai has higher HDI than rural Bihar state
• Example: London and South East England have higher GDP per capita than Wales and North East England

Causes of uneven development

Multiple physical, economic, and historical factors explain why development varies globally.

Physical factors:

• Climate — extreme climates (very hot, cold, or dry) make farming difficult, reducing food security and income
• Topography — mountainous terrain limits agriculture and makes infrastructure expensive
• Natural hazards — earthquakes, tropical storms, and floods destroy infrastructure and reduce investment
• Landlocked countries — nations like Chad and Bolivia lack ports, making trade more expensive
• Natural resources — countries with oil (UAE, Saudi Arabia) or minerals developed faster

Economic factors:

• Trade — HICs often export high-value manufactured goods; LICs export low-value raw materials
• Debt — many LICs borrowed money for development but struggle with interest repayments
• Historical trade relationships — unfair trading systems established during colonial periods persist
• Investment — TNCs (Transnational Corporations) invest more in stable, educated countries

Historical factors:

• Colonialism — European countries exploited colonies for resources and labour, leaving them underdeveloped
• Conflict — wars destroy infrastructure, kill working-age adults, and prevent investment
• Examples: Afghanistan, Syria, South Sudan remain underdeveloped due to prolonged conflict

Consequences of uneven development

The development gap creates significant impacts on migration, wealth, and health globally.

International migration:

• Economic migrants move from LICs and NEEs to HICs seeking better wages
• Example: Workers from Eastern Europe migrating to the UK for employment
• Example: Caribbean nurses recruited to work in the NHS
• Remittances (money sent home) help families in origin countries
• Brain drain — skilled workers leaving LICs reduces their development potential

Wealth disparities:

• HICs control most global wealth despite smaller populations
• LICs spend limited budgets on debt repayments rather than development
• Within countries, wealth concentrated in urban elites
• Informal economy (unregulated work) common in LICs, reducing tax income

Health inequalities:

• HICs have advanced healthcare systems; LICs often lack basic provision
• Preventable diseases (malaria, cholera) kill millions in LICs annually
• Malnutrition affects physical and cognitive development in children
• HIV/AIDS particularly affects sub-Saharan Africa, reducing workforce
• Life expectancy gap: 85 years in Japan versus 54 years in Nigeria

Strategies to reduce the development gap

Various approaches exist to reduce inequality, each with advantages and disadvantages.

Aid:

• Bilateral aid — direct government-to-government assistance
• Multilateral aid — money given through organisations like the UN or World Bank
• Short-term (emergency) aid — disaster relief (food, medicine, shelter)
• Long-term (development) aid — projects building infrastructure or capacity
• Advantages: Saves lives, builds essential services
• Disadvantages: Can create dependency, may be tied to political conditions, corruption possible

Intermediate technology (appropriate technology):

• Technology suited to the skills, wealth, and needs of local people
• Example: Rope pumps in Africa cost less than electric pumps, use local materials, easily repaired
• Example: Solar cooking equipment in sunny LICs reduces firewood collection time
• Advantages: Sustainable, locals can maintain equipment, uses local resources
• Disadvantages: Limited scale, may not transform economy quickly

Fair trade:

• Trading system ensuring producers in LICs receive fair prices
• Common products: coffee, tea, cocoa, bananas, cotton
• Fairtrade premium funds community projects (schools, health centres)
• Advantages: Stable income for farmers, community investment, better working conditions
• Disadvantages: Small scale, consumers pay more, certification costs money

Debt relief:

• Cancelling or reducing debts owed by LICs to HICs or international banks
• Example: Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative cancelled billions
• Freed money can be spent on health, education, and infrastructure
• Advantages: Immediate financial relief, enables development spending
• Disadvantages: Doesn't address underlying causes, may encourage reckless borrowing

Investment by TNCs:

• Large companies (like Apple, Unilever, Shell) operating in multiple countries
• Bring jobs, technology transfer, and tax revenue
• Example: Nissan factory in Sunderland, UK provides thousands of jobs
• Example: Tata Steel invested in Indian infrastructure
• Advantages: Employment, skills training, infrastructure development, multiplier effect
• Disadvantages: Profits leave country, may exploit cheap labour, environmental damage possible

Tourism:

• Increasingly important in NEEs and some LICs
• Example: Kenya's safari tourism employs thousands, protects wildlife habitats
• Example: Jamaica's tourism industry generates 30% of employment
• Advantages: Creates jobs, foreign currency earnings, multiplier effect
• Disadvantages: Seasonal employment, environmental damage, leakage (profits to foreign companies)

Case study approach

For WJEC GCSE, you must study one LIC or NEE to examine development in detail. Common choices include Nigeria, Jamaica, India, or Kenya.

Key aspects to revise:

• Location and context (population, region, HDI ranking)
• Economic development (employment sectors, major industries, TNCs)
• Social development (education, healthcare, urban-rural differences)
• Environmental issues linked to development
• International relationships and aid received
• Strategies used to reduce the development gap

For example, if studying Nigeria:

• Africa's most populous country (over 200 million people)
• NEE with growing economy based on oil exports, agriculture, and manufacturing
• Nollywood (film industry) is world's second largest by volume
• HDI 0.535 (2021) — medium development
• Urban-rural divide significant (Lagos wealthy, northern rural areas poor)
• Oil pollution in Niger Delta affects fishing communities
• Receives aid but also attracts significant FDI (foreign direct investment)

Worked examples

Question 1: Explain one advantage of using HDI rather than GDP to measure development. [2 marks]

Model answer: HDI combines economic (GNI per capita) with social measures (life expectancy and education), providing a more complete picture of development [1]. This means it shows quality of life, not just wealth, so countries cannot rank highly just because they have natural resources like oil [1].

Examiner guidance: Award one mark for identifying that HDI is composite/combines measures, and one mark for explaining why this gives a better picture than GDP alone.

Question 2: Study the development data for Country X and Country Y. Which country is more developed? Justify your answer using the data. [4 marks]

Model answer: Country X is more developed overall [1]. Although Country Y has much higher GDP per capita [1], Country X performs better on social indicators which show quality of life. Country X has much higher life expectancy (78 versus 68 years) [1] and much lower infant mortality (8 versus 45 per 1000), suggesting better healthcare provision [1]. This shows that wealth alone doesn't guarantee development.

Examiner guidance: Award marks for a clear decision (1), use of data (1-2), and developed reasoning about what indicators reveal (1-2). Beware of simply describing data without making comparisons.

Question 3: Assess the effectiveness of fair trade in reducing the development gap. [6 marks + 3 SPaG]

Model answer: Fair trade has some effectiveness in reducing the development gap but its impact is limited. Fair trade guarantees farmers in LICs receive minimum prices for products like coffee and cocoa, protecting them from price crashes [1]. The Fairtrade premium provides additional money for community projects such as schools and wells in farming villages, improving social development [1]. This creates a more sustainable income than traditional trade, where farmers might receive as little as 10% of the final retail price [1].

However, fair trade's effectiveness is restricted by its small scale — only about 5% of global trade is Fairtrade certified [1]. Many farmers cannot afford certification costs or don't produce enough to qualify [1]. Additionally, fair trade doesn't address structural causes of the development gap such as historical exploitation, debt burdens, or lack of infrastructure [1].

Therefore, while fair trade improves conditions for some farmers and communities, it is not sufficient alone to significantly reduce the development gap without complementary strategies like debt relief and investment.

Examiner guidance: Level-based marking. Level 3 (5-6 marks) requires balanced assessment with specific detail. Include advantages AND limitations. Use examples. Write a clear conclusion. Check spelling of geographical terms (separate SPaG marks available).

Common mistakes and how to avoid them

• Confusing terms: Don't mix up GDP (total economic output) with GNI (includes overseas income) or HDI (composite indicator). Learn precise definitions.

• Describing instead of explaining: When asked to "explain," identify the cause-and-effect relationship. For example, don't just state "conflict affects development" — explain "conflict destroys infrastructure like roads and hospitals, which reduces access to markets and healthcare, lowering economic growth and life expectancy."

• Forgetting about development within countries: The development gap exists internationally AND within countries (urban-rural, regional variations). Questions may test both scales.

• One-sided answers to assessment questions: "Assess" and "evaluate" command words require you to consider different perspectives, advantages AND disadvantages. Always present a balanced argument.

• Vague case study references: Instead of "Africa has low development," write "Sub-Saharan African countries like Chad have low HDI (0.394) due to factors including landlocked location, conflict, and climate challenges."

• Assuming all aid is good or all bad: Different types of aid (emergency versus development; bilateral versus multilateral) have different impacts. Be specific about which type you're discussing.

Exam technique for "Global Development and Inequality"

• Command word recognition: "Describe" = say what you see in data/maps (no reasons needed). "Explain" = give reasons why/how. "Assess/Evaluate" = weigh up different viewpoints, reach a judgement. Typically, describe questions = 2-3 marks; explain = 3-4 marks; assess = 6-9 marks.

• Using data effectively: When resources (graphs, tables, maps) are provided, quote specific figures to support points. Write "Life expectancy is 78 years" not "Life expectancy is high." Reference map locations: "The pattern shows LICs concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia."

• Case study depth: For 6-9 mark case study questions, include: name and location of place, specific facts/figures, named examples (TNCs, projects, places within the country), and how strategies link to development indicators. Generic answers score poorly.

• Structure for extended answers: Use the PEE structure (Point, Evidence, Explain). For assessment questions, add both sides: advantages/disadvantages or different viewpoints, then write a concluding judgement. Check SPaG carefully on questions worth 9 marks+ as extra marks are available.

Quick revision summary

Development measures progress in economic growth, technology, and quality of life using indicators like GDP, life expectancy, and HDI. Global inequality creates a development gap between HICs, NEEs, and LICs caused by physical factors (climate, resources), economic factors (trade, debt), and historical factors (colonialism, conflict). Consequences include migration, health inequalities, and wealth concentration. Strategies to reduce the gap include aid, fair trade, debt relief, intermediate technology, TNC investment, and tourism — each with advantages and limitations. Know your case study LIC/NEE in detail for examination questions.