What you'll learn
This guide covers the Elizabethan Age (1558–1603) as examined in WJEC GCSE History. You'll study Elizabeth I's challenges on taking the throne, her religious settlement, government structure, foreign policy threats, voyages of exploration, and social change. This topic requires you to analyse causes, consequences and the significance of events during Elizabeth's 45-year reign.
Key terms and definitions
Religious Settlement — The series of laws passed between 1559-1563 establishing a moderate Protestant Church of England, designed to satisfy both Catholics and Protestants.
Excommunication — The act of Pope Pius V removing Elizabeth from the Catholic Church in 1570, releasing English Catholics from their obligation to obey her.
Privy Council — Elizabeth's main governing body of approximately 19 trusted advisers who met daily to discuss policy and administer the realm.
Privateer — A privately owned ship licensed by the government (holding a 'letter of marque') to attack enemy vessels, such as Francis Drake raiding Spanish treasure ships.
Spanish Armada — The fleet of 130 ships sent by Philip II of Spain in 1588 to invade England and restore Catholicism.
Poor Law — Legislation passed in 1601 creating a national system to support the deserving poor through parish-based poor relief funded by local rates.
Royal Progresses — Elizabeth's summer tours around England, staying at nobles' houses to display her majesty and maintain political control without the expense of a permanent court.
Recusant — A Catholic who refused to attend Church of England services, facing fines of £20 per month by the 1580s.
Core concepts
Elizabeth's succession and early challenges (1558-1569)
Elizabeth faced immediate problems when she became queen aged 25 in November 1558:
Legitimacy concerns: Catholics viewed Elizabeth as illegitimate because the Pope had never recognised Henry VIII's marriage to Anne Boleyn. Mary Queen of Scots, Elizabeth's Catholic cousin, had a strong claim to the English throne.
Gender and marriage: Many believed women were unsuitable rulers. Elizabeth faced constant pressure to marry and produce an heir. She refused proposals from Philip II of Spain, Eric of Sweden, and her favourite Robert Dudley, choosing to remain the 'Virgin Queen' and use marriage negotiations as a diplomatic tool.
Religious division: England had experienced rapid religious changes under Henry VIII, Edward VI and Mary I. Elizabeth inherited a country split between Catholics and Protestants. She needed a settlement that would prevent religious civil war.
Financial weakness: Mary I left debts of £300,000. England's military was weak compared to European powers like Spain and France.
Foreign threats: France (allied with Scotland through Mary Queen of Scots' marriage to the French heir) and Spain were both powerful Catholic nations that could invade to restore Catholicism.
The Religious Settlement
Elizabeth's religious policy aimed for a via media (middle way) between Catholicism and Protestantism:
The Act of Supremacy (1559) made Elizabeth 'Supreme Governor' of the Church of England (not 'Supreme Head' to appease Catholics). All clergy and officials had to swear an oath accepting this.
The Act of Uniformity (1559) required all churches to use the Book of Common Prayer. Church attendance was compulsory with fines of one shilling for absence. The wording allowed Catholics to interpret the communion service in their own way.
The Royal Injunctions (1559) were instructions to the clergy requiring them to teach the royal supremacy and report recusants.
The Thirty-Nine Articles (1563) defined the beliefs of the Church of England in a moderately Protestant way.
Opposition came from both sides:
Puritan opposition: Radical Protestants wanted to 'purify' the Church by removing Catholic practices like bishops, vestments and kneeling at communion. The Vestments Controversy (1566) saw many clergy refuse to wear required vestments.
Catholic opposition: Initially limited as many Catholics were 'Church Papists' who outwardly conformed. This changed after 1570 when the Pope excommunicated Elizabeth and Catholic priests from seminary colleges in Europe began arriving in England to maintain Catholicism.
Government and Elizabeth's control
Elizabeth governed through established institutions:
Parliament met only 13 times during her reign. Elizabeth controlled it by opening and closing sessions, vetoing bills, and forbidding discussion of certain topics like marriage and succession. She needed Parliament to grant taxation and pass laws but resisted its attempts to influence policy.
The Privy Council was Elizabeth's most important governing body. Key members included:
- William Cecil (Lord Burghley): Secretary of State then Lord Treasurer, her most trusted adviser for 40 years
- Sir Francis Walsingham: Secretary of State and spymaster who uncovered Catholic plots
- Robert Dudley (Earl of Leicester): Master of the Horse and royal favourite
Justices of the Peace (JPs) were local gentry who enforced law, collected taxes, and administered poor relief in the counties. This system allowed Elizabeth to govern cheaply without a large bureaucracy.
Lord Lieutenants were responsible for raising local militias and maintaining order in their counties, replacing the military power previously held by nobles.
Elizabeth's image was carefully controlled through portraits showing her as eternally youthful, powerful and magnificent. This cult of gloriana strengthened loyalty.
Catholic threats and plots
Catholic opposition intensified from 1568 when Mary Queen of Scots fled to England after being forced to abdicate in Scotland. Her presence created a focal point for Catholic plots:
The Revolt of the Northern Earls (1569): The Catholic Earls of Northumberland and Westmorland raised an army of 6,000 in northern England, intending to marry Mary to the Duke of Norfolk and restore Catholicism. The revolt collapsed when royal forces approached. Around 450 rebels were executed.
The Ridolfi Plot (1571): An Italian banker, Roberto Ridolfi, planned for Spanish troops to invade, depose Elizabeth, and put Mary on the throne. Walsingham's spies uncovered the plot. The Duke of Norfolk was executed but Elizabeth refused to execute Mary.
The Throckmorton Plot (1583): Francis Throckmorton planned a French invasion with papal financing. Walsingham discovered coded letters. Throckmorton was executed and tighter controls placed on Catholics.
The Babington Plot (1586): Anthony Babington and other young Catholics planned to assassinate Elizabeth. Walsingham's agent Gilbert Gifford intercepted letters between Babington and Mary, who approved the assassination. This sealed Mary's fate—she was executed in February 1587.
Government response to Catholic threats intensified through:
- The Treason Act (1571) making it treason to deny Elizabeth was the rightful queen
- Fines for recusancy increased to £20 per month (1581)
- Harbouring Catholic priests became a capital offence (1585)
- Over 180 Catholics were executed during Elizabeth's reign
Conflict with Spain and the Armada
Relations between England and Spain deteriorated throughout Elizabeth's reign:
Causes of conflict:
- Religious differences: Philip II saw himself as defender of Catholicism
- English support for Dutch Protestant rebels fighting against Spanish rule in the Netherlands (1585 onwards)
- English privateers like Francis Drake raiding Spanish colonies and treasure ships
- Elizabeth's execution of Mary Queen of Scots (1587) angered Philip
- Elizabeth's refusal to marry Philip after Mary I's death
The Spanish Armada (1588):
Philip II assembled 130 ships carrying 30,000 men under the Duke of Medina Sidonia. The plan was to sail to the Netherlands, collect the Duke of Parma's 27,000-strong army, and invade England.
The Armada failed due to:
- English naval tactics: Faster English ships using longer-range cannons harassed the Spanish crescent formation up the Channel
- Fireships at Calais: English ships set alight and sent into the anchored Spanish fleet caused panic and broke the formation
- The Battle of Gravelines: English ships inflicted damage on the scattered Spanish fleet
- Weather: The 'Protestant Wind' forced the Spanish to sail around Scotland and Ireland; many ships were wrecked in storms
- Poor Spanish planning: Lack of deep-water ports and coordination problems between Medina Sidonia and Parma
Consequences of the Armada's defeat:
- Elizabeth's prestige increased enormously across Protestant Europe
- England was not invaded but the war with Spain continued until 1604
- Spain remained powerful—Philip sent two more (unsuccessful) armadas in the 1590s
- Naval warfare established England's reputation as a maritime power
Exploration and the New World
Elizabethan England saw increased interest in overseas expansion:
Motives for exploration:
- Economic gain through trade and plunder
- Finding new trade routes to Asia (Northwest Passage)
- National prestige and competition with Spain and Portugal
- Spreading Protestant Christianity
Key voyages:
Francis Drake's circumnavigation (1577-1580): Drake sailed through the Strait of Magellan, raided Spanish colonies on the Pacific coast, and returned via the Cape of Good Hope. He brought back treasure worth £400,000 (half went to Elizabeth). She knighted him aboard the Golden Hind in 1581, infuriating Spain.
Walter Raleigh and Virginia (1584-1590): Raleigh sponsored attempts to establish a colony in North America, named Virginia after Elizabeth. The Roanoke colony failed—settlers either died or disappeared. Permanent English colonisation only succeeded under James I.
Trading companies: The Muscovy Company (1555) traded with Russia. The Levant Company (1581) traded with the Ottoman Empire. The East India Company (1600) began trading with Asia.
Impact of exploration:
- New goods reached England: tobacco, potatoes, sugar
- Wealth from plundering Spanish ships funded government activities
- Enhanced England's international reputation
- Limited immediate success in colonisation but established patterns for the 17th century
Elizabethan society
Social hierarchy was rigid and believed to be ordained by God:
- Nobility (50-60 peers)
- Gentry (landowners, JPs)
- Yeomen (farmers who owned land)
- Tenant farmers
- Landless labourers and the poor
The problem of poverty:
Poverty increased during Elizabeth's reign due to:
- Population growth from 3 million (1558) to 4 million (1603) creating pressure on resources
- Inflation making food expensive
- Enclosure of common land for sheep farming reducing employment
- Dissolution of monasteries (under Henry VIII) had removed traditional poor relief
- Periodic harvest failures, especially in the 1590s
Society distinguished between:
- Deserving poor: Unable to work through age, sickness, or disability
- Undeserving poor (vagabonds): Able-bodied people who refused to work
Government responses:
The Poor Law (1601) created a national system:
- Each parish appointed an Overseer of the Poor
- A poor rate (local tax) funded relief
- The deserving poor received 'outdoor relief' (money, food) or entered almshouses
- The able-bodied poor were given work in Houses of Correction
- Vagrant beggars were whipped and returned to their home parish
Earlier measures included vagabonds being branded (1547 under Edward VI), and licenses for deserving poor to beg (1563).
Culture and entertainment:
The Elizabethan era saw a flourishing of:
- Theatre: Purpose-built playhouses like the Globe (1599) hosted plays by William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe and Ben Jonson
- Music and dance: Madrigals, virginals, and elaborate court entertainments
- Education: Grammar schools expanded, teaching Latin to boys (girls' education was domestic)
Worked examples
Example 1: Describe the features of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. [4 marks]
Sample answer: One feature of the Religious Settlement was the Act of Supremacy (1559), which made Elizabeth Supreme Governor of the Church of England. This meant she had authority over the Church but used a less controversial title than her father's 'Supreme Head'.
Another feature was the Act of Uniformity (1559), which required all churches to use the Book of Common Prayer. This created religious uniformity across England, and people had to attend church services or face fines of one shilling.
Mark scheme guidance: Award 1 mark for identifying a feature, 1 mark for supporting detail. Two features required for full marks. This answer scores 4/4 by providing two distinct features with accurate supporting information.
Example 2: Explain why the Spanish Armada was defeated in 1588. [8 marks]
Sample answer: One reason the Spanish Armada was defeated was English naval tactics. The English ships were faster and more manoeuvrable than the large Spanish galleons, allowing them to use hit-and-run tactics. English captains like Drake and Hawkins used longer-range cannons to attack the Spanish crescent formation without getting close enough for Spanish soldiers to board their ships. This prevented the Spanish from using their strength, which was hand-to-hand combat.
Another reason was the weather. After the English used fireships to break up the Spanish fleet at Calais, the remaining ships had to sail around Scotland and Ireland to return to Spain. Severe storms—called the 'Protestant Wind' by the English—wrecked many Spanish ships on the rocky coasts. Approximately 50 ships were lost this way and thousands of Spanish sailors drowned or were killed when they reached land.
A third reason was poor Spanish planning. The Spanish plan relied on perfect coordination between Medina Sidonia's fleet and the Duke of Parma's army in the Netherlands. However, there was no deep-water port where they could safely meet, and communication between the two forces was difficult. This meant the invasion could not proceed even when the Armada reached the Channel.
Mark scheme guidance: Award 3-4 marks for each explained reason (identify reason, explain how it contributed to defeat, use specific details). Three developed reasons would score 8/8. This answer provides accurate detail and clear explanation linking each factor to the outcome.
Example 3: How far do you agree that the Catholic threat was the most serious problem Elizabeth faced? [12-16 marks + 3-4 SPaG]
Sample answer structure:
Introduction: State your argument clearly—e.g., "Elizabeth faced numerous serious problems, but the Catholic threat was the most serious because it threatened her life and throne throughout her reign."
Paragraph 1 (agreeing): Explain the Catholic threat—plots (Babington, Ridolfi, Throckmorton), Mary Queen of Scots' claim, papal excommunication (1570), support from Spain and France. Link to the consequence: Elizabeth's life was at risk and if she died without an heir, civil war might follow.
Paragraph 2 (agreeing): The Catholic threat abroad—conflict with Spain culminating in the Armada (1588). If the Armada had succeeded, Catholicism would have been restored by force.
Paragraph 3 (alternative view): Other problems were also serious—financial weakness (£300,000 debt in 1558), pressure to marry and produce an heir, Puritan opposition in Parliament. However, explain why these were less serious than the Catholic threat (e.g., financial problems were solved without threatening her throne).
Conclusion: Make a judgement weighing the factors. Strong answers acknowledge the seriousness of other problems but explain why the Catholic threat was more serious.
Mark scheme guidance: Top level (10-12 marks) requires sustained analysis, evaluating multiple factors, reaching a supported judgement. SPaG marks require accurate spelling of key terms, proper paragraphing, and varied sentence structures.
Common mistakes and how to avoid them
Confusing the Religious Settlement acts: Don't mix up the Act of Supremacy (Elizabeth's title as Supreme Governor) and the Act of Uniformity (church attendance and the Prayer Book). Learn each act's specific purpose.
Oversimplifying the Armada's defeat: Avoid stating "the weather defeated the Armada" alone. Explain multiple factors (tactics, fireships, planning failures) and how weather was one contributing factor, mainly affecting the return journey.
Listing plots without analysis: In extended answers, don't just describe Catholic plots. Explain their significance—what they reveal about the Catholic threat's seriousness and how government responses evolved.
Ignoring change over time: Elizabeth's problems changed. Catholic opposition was limited in the 1560s but intensified after 1568 (Mary's arrival) and 1570 (excommunication). Show awareness of chronology.
Mixing up Mary Tudor and Mary Queen of Scots: Mary Tudor was Elizabeth's Catholic half-sister who reigned before her. Mary Queen of Scots was Elizabeth's cousin and a threat after 1568.
Weak conclusions in essay questions: Don't just repeat your introduction. Make a clear judgement based on the evidence you've presented, explaining which factor was most important and why.
Exam technique for "The Elizabethan Age, 1558–1603"
Know your command words: 'Describe' requires factual details (no explanation); 'Explain' requires causes/reasons with detail; 'How far do you agree' requires evaluation of multiple factors and a judgement.
Structure extended answers: Use the PEEL method (Point, Evidence, Explanation, Link). For essays, write an introduction stating your argument, 3-4 analytical paragraphs considering different factors, and a conclusion with a supported judgement.
Use specific evidence: Name key individuals (William Cecil, Francis Walsingham), dates (1588 Armada, 1570 excommunication), legislation (Poor Law 1601), and precise figures (£300,000 debt) to demonstrate detailed knowledge.
Time management: In WJEC exams, allocate time according to marks available. A 4-mark question needs approximately 5 minutes; a 16-mark essay needs 20-25 minutes. Leave time to check SPaG in essay questions.
Quick revision summary
Elizabeth I faced challenges from her legitimacy, religious division, financial weakness and pressure to marry. Her Religious Settlement (1559-63) created a moderate Protestant Church. She governed through the Privy Council and Parliament, projecting power through royal progresses and carefully controlled imagery. Catholic threats intensified from 1568 with plots involving Mary Queen of Scots, culminating in Mary's execution (1587) and the Spanish Armada's defeat (1588). Exploration expanded English interests globally through Drake's circumnavigation and attempted colonisation. Social problems included rising poverty, addressed by the 1601 Poor Law creating parish-based relief.