Issues of Good and Evil

What you'll learn

This guide covers the WJEC GCSE Religious Studies specification on Issues of Good and Evil. You'll explore how Christians and Buddhists understand moral concepts, respond to suffering, and tackle questions about forgiveness and justice. These revision notes provide you with the knowledge, key terms, and exam strategies you need to achieve top marks.

Key terms and definitions

Evil — actions or natural events that cause suffering and are seen as morally wrong or harmful

Suffering — the experience of physical or mental pain, distress, or hardship

Free will — the ability to make choices independently without external compulsion or divine predetermination

Atonement — the process of making amends for wrongdoing, particularly in Christianity through Jesus's sacrifice

Karma — in Buddhism, the law of cause and effect where intentional actions determine future circumstances

Forgiveness — pardoning someone for wrongdoing and letting go of resentment or desire for revenge

Theodicy — an attempt to reconcile the existence of evil and suffering with belief in an all-powerful, all-loving God

Compassion — sympathetic concern for the suffering of others, motivating action to relieve it

Core concepts

The nature and origins of evil and suffering

Evil is traditionally divided into two categories that both create suffering in the world.

Moral evil results from human choices and actions:

• Murder, theft, and violence
• War and genocide
• Discrimination and oppression
• Caused by the misuse of free will

Natural evil occurs through natural processes without human agency:

• Earthquakes, tsunamis, and floods
• Disease and pandemics
• Droughts and famines
• Raises questions about God's role in creation

Christians trace the origin of moral evil to the Fall described in Genesis 3. Adam and Eve's disobedience introduced sin into the world, corrupting human nature. This doctrine of original sin explains humanity's tendency toward wrongdoing. God gave humans free will to enable genuine love and moral choice, but this also permits evil actions.

Buddhists do not attribute evil to a divine creator or fallen nature. Instead, evil arises from ignorance (not understanding the true nature of reality), greed, and hatred — the Three Poisons. These mental states cause individuals to create negative karma through harmful actions. Suffering (dukkha) is one of the Three Marks of Existence, an inherent characteristic of life caused by craving and attachment.

The problem of evil and suffering

The problem of evil presents a logical challenge primarily to monotheistic religions that believe in an omnipotent, omnibenevolent, and omniscient God:

1. If God is all-powerful, He can prevent evil
2. If God is all-loving, He wants to prevent evil
3. Yet evil and suffering exist

This creates an apparent contradiction. Why would a good God allow suffering?

Christian responses to the problem of evil:

The Augustinian theodicy (based on St Augustine's teachings):

• Evil is not a substance but an absence of good (privatio boni)
• God created a perfect world
• Humans chose to turn away from God through the Fall
• Suffering is a consequence of sin
• God's grace through Jesus offers redemption

The Irenaean theodicy (developed from Irenaeus's ideas):

• God created humans imperfect, with potential to develop
• Suffering provides soul-making opportunities for spiritual growth
• Free will enables moral development
• This world is a "vale of soul-making" where challenges create virtues
• Ultimate reconciliation through God's love

Modern Christian perspectives:

• God suffers alongside humanity (demonstrated through Jesus's crucifixion)
• Some suffering results from living in a universe with natural laws
• Mystery of suffering requires faith, not complete rational explanation
• Prayer and community support help Christians endure trials

Buddhist responses to suffering:

Buddhism focuses less on why suffering exists and more on understanding and overcoming it:

• The Four Noble Truths diagnose suffering and prescribe the cure
• Suffering (dukkha) is universal and takes many forms
• Suffering is caused by tanha (craving/desire) and attachment
• Suffering can cease through eliminating craving
• The Eightfold Path provides the method to end suffering

Buddhists view suffering as impermanent and without a divine cause. Karma explains individual circumstances — present suffering may result from past actions (in this life or previous lives). This is not punishment but natural consequence. Compassion (karuna) motivates Buddhists to help others reduce suffering.

Concepts of good, morality and virtue

Christian perspectives on good and morality:

Christians understand morality through several sources:

The Bible provides moral guidance:

• The Ten Commandments (Exodus 20) establish fundamental laws
• Jesus's teaching in the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5-7) emphasizes internal attitudes, not just external actions
• The Golden Rule: "Do to others what you would have them do to you" (Matthew 7:12)
• Love God and love your neighbor as the greatest commandments (Matthew 22:37-39)

Natural Law (developed by Thomas Aquinas):

• God embedded moral law into creation
• Human reason can discover right and wrong
• Actions are good when they fulfill God's purpose for humanity

Conscience serves as an internal moral guide:

• Catholics view conscience as the voice of God within
• Protestants emphasize Scripture shaping conscience
• Must be informed through prayer, study, and community

The Holy Spirit guides believers in moral decisions and develops fruits of the Spirit (Galatians 5:22-23): love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, self-control.

Buddhist perspectives on good and morality:

Buddhist ethics center on reducing suffering and developing wisdom:

The Five Precepts (ethical guidelines for laypeople):

1. Refrain from taking life (ahimsa — non-violence)
2. Refrain from taking what is not given
3. Refrain from sexual misconduct
4. Refrain from false speech
5. Refrain from intoxicants that cloud the mind

These are undertaken voluntarily, not commandments from a deity. They cultivate skillful (kusala) actions that reduce suffering.

The Noble Eightfold Path includes ethical training:

• Right Speech (truthful, helpful, harmonious language)
• Right Action (following the precepts)
• Right Livelihood (ethical occupation that doesn't harm others)

Buddhist virtues include:

• Metta (loving-kindness) — wishing all beings to be happy
• Karuna (compassion) — responding to suffering with care
• Mudita (sympathetic joy) — rejoicing in others' happiness
• Upekkha (equanimity) — balanced, calm response to circumstances

Intention matters crucially in Buddhism. The same action creates different karma depending on the mental state behind it.

Forgiveness and reconciliation

Christian teaching on forgiveness:

Forgiveness is central to Christian faith and practice:

Biblical foundations:

• God's forgiveness through Jesus's death provides atonement for sin
• The Lord's Prayer: "Forgive us our sins as we forgive those who sin against us" (Matthew 6:12)
• Jesus taught unlimited forgiveness: "seventy-seven times" (Matthew 18:22)
• Jesus forgave those crucifying him: "Father, forgive them, for they do not know what they are doing" (Luke 23:34)
• Parable of the Prodigal Son (Luke 15:11-32) illustrates God's forgiveness

Christian practice:

• Confession and repentance enable forgiveness
• Sacrament of Reconciliation in Catholic tradition
• Forgiveness doesn't necessarily mean forgetting or removing consequences
• Christians believe forgiveness brings healing and restoration
• Reconciliation rebuilds damaged relationships

Challenges to forgiveness:

• Some crimes seem unforgivable (genocide, abuse)
• Victims' rights to justice
• Distinguishing forgiveness from excusing wrongdoing
• Debate over whether forgiveness requires repentance first

Contemporary examples:

• Gordon Wilson forgave his daughter's IRA killers (Enniskillen bombing, 1987)
• Desmond Tutu's Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa
• Parental forgiveness of children's murderers

Buddhist teaching on forgiveness:

Buddhism approaches forgiveness through different concepts:

Letting go of anger:

• Anger is one of the Three Poisons causing suffering
• Holding resentment harms the person who harbors it
• The Dhammapada states: "Hatred is never appeased by hatred; it is appeased only by love"
• Forgiveness as release from mental suffering, not condoning wrongdoing

Compassion for wrongdoers:

• Understanding that harmful actions stem from ignorance
• Everyone has Buddha-nature and capacity for enlightenment
• Metta practice extends loving-kindness even to difficult people

Karma and responsibility:

• Wrongdoers create negative karma through their actions
• Natural consequences follow from choices
• Victims aren't required to maintain relationships with harmful people
• Forgiveness is internal transformation, not necessarily reconciliation

The Dalai Lama's response to Chinese occupation of Tibet demonstrates Buddhist forgiveness — maintaining compassion for Chinese people while opposing injustice.

Justice, punishment and the death penalty

Christian perspectives on justice and punishment:

Christians balance several principles:

Biblical justice:

• Old Testament law: "eye for eye, tooth for tooth" (Exodus 21:24) — proportionate punishment
• Prophets emphasize social justice for the poor and oppressed
• Jesus emphasizes mercy alongside justice
• Romans 13:1-4 acknowledges government authority to punish wrongdoers

Purposes of punishment:

• Retribution — wrongdoers deserve punishment (justice served)
• Deterrence — preventing future crimes through consequences
• Reformation — helping offenders change and rehabilitate
• Protection — keeping society safe from dangerous individuals

Christian views on the death penalty:

Christians are divided:

Supporting capital punishment:

• Biblical precedent in Mosaic Law for serious crimes
• Genesis 9:6: "Whoever sheds human blood, by humans shall their blood be shed"
• Romans 13 gives governments authority over life and death
• Some crimes are so serious they deserve ultimate punishment
• Protects society from dangerous criminals

Opposing capital punishment:

• Sanctity of life — only God should take life
• Jesus opposed retribution: "turn the other cheek" (Matthew 5:39)
• Jesus saved the adulteress from stoning (John 8:1-11)
• Possibility of wrongful conviction
• Denies opportunity for repentance and rehabilitation
• Pope Francis and Catholic Church now oppose it globally
• Many Protestant denominations oppose execution

Buddhist perspectives on justice and punishment:

Buddhist ethical principles shape attitudes toward justice:

First Precept — not taking life:

• All life is interconnected
• The death penalty violates ahimsa (non-violence)
• Execution creates extremely negative karma for all involved
• Most Buddhists oppose capital punishment universally

Emphasis on reformation:

• Punishment should aim to help offenders recognize harm caused
• Developing wisdom and compassion prevents future wrongdoing
• Restorative justice aligns with Buddhist values
• Meditation and moral education in prisons

Compassion and understanding:

• Criminals act from ignorance, greed, or hatred
• Society shares responsibility for conditions creating crime
• Victims deserve protection and support
• Balance between compassion for offenders and protection of society

Karma and natural justice:

• Actions naturally produce consequences
• External punishment is less important than internal transformation
• Focus on preventing harm rather than retribution

Countries with Buddhist majorities (like Bhutan) have abolished the death penalty, though cultural factors also influence this.

Worked examples

Example 1: AO1 Knowledge Question (5 marks)

Question: Explain Christian teachings about forgiveness.

Mark scheme approach:

• 5-6 marks: Detailed explanation showing understanding of Christian beliefs about forgiveness with accurate use of religious language and sources
• 3-4 marks: Good explanation with some detail
• 1-2 marks: Basic explanation with limited detail

Model answer:

Christians believe forgiveness is essential because God forgives human sins through Jesus's atonement. Jesus taught his followers to forgive others repeatedly, telling Peter to forgive "seventy-seven times," meaning unlimited forgiveness. In the Lord's Prayer, Christians ask God to "forgive us our sins as we forgive those who sin against us," linking God's forgiveness to forgiving others.

Jesus demonstrated forgiveness on the cross, saying "Father, forgive them, for they do not know what they are doing." The Parable of the Prodigal Son shows God's unconditional forgiveness when people repent. Christians practice forgiveness through confession and repentance, with Catholics using the Sacrament of Reconciliation. Forgiveness brings healing and reconciliation, restoring damaged relationships, though it doesn't remove consequences for wrongdoing.

Example 2: AO2 Evaluation Question (15 marks)

Question: "The existence of suffering proves there is no God." Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religious and non-religious views in your answer.)

Mark scheme approach:

• Arguments for the statement (non-religious/atheist perspective)
• Arguments against the statement (religious theodicies and responses)
• Conclusion summarizing the strongest arguments

Model answer:

Some people argue that suffering does prove God doesn't exist because an all-powerful, all-loving God would prevent evil and suffering. The philosopher Epicurus stated that either God cannot stop evil (not omnipotent) or will not stop it (not omnibenevolent), or evil wouldn't exist. Natural disasters killing innocent children seem incompatible with a loving creator. If God is all-knowing, He created the world knowing suffering would occur, suggesting cruelty. Atheists conclude that suffering is simply part of a natural world without divine oversight.

However, Christians offer theodicies explaining suffering's existence alongside God. The Augustinian theodicy argues that God created a perfect world but humans misused free will through the Fall, introducing evil. Suffering results from sin, not God's design. The Irenaean theodicy suggests God created humans imperfect so they could develop spiritually — suffering provides "soul-making" opportunities to grow virtues like courage and compassion. Free will is necessary for genuine love and moral choice, even though it permits evil actions.

Christians also argue that God suffers alongside humanity, demonstrated through Jesus's crucifixion. Jesus experienced rejection, torture, and death, showing God understands human pain. The resurrection offers hope that suffering is temporary and will ultimately be overcome. Some suffering remains mysterious, requiring faith, but God's presence provides comfort and strength.

Non-religious people might respond that theodicies don't adequately explain innocent suffering, especially of children and animals who haven't sinned. The amount and severity of suffering seems excessive for soul-making purposes. A truly loving God could create free will without permitting horrific evils like genocide.

In conclusion, while suffering creates logical challenges for belief in God, religious believers find that theodicies and the concept of soul-making provide satisfactory explanations. The strongest argument may be that faith accepts some mystery while trusting in God's ultimate goodness and plan for redemption.

Example 3: Short AO1 Question (2 marks)

Question: Give two Buddhist teachings about good actions.

Model answer:

One Buddhist teaching is following the Five Precepts, such as refraining from taking life and practicing ahimsa (non-violence). Another teaching is developing Right Action on the Eightfold Path, which means acting ethically to reduce suffering for oneself and others.

Common mistakes and how to avoid them

• Confusing different theodicies — Keep Augustine (evil from the Fall, original sin) separate from Irenaeus (soul-making, development). Learn the key features of each and which emphasizes human responsibility versus spiritual growth.

• Failing to distinguish moral and natural evil — Remember that moral evil comes from human choices (murder, theft) while natural evil occurs through natural processes (earthquakes, disease). Use specific examples to demonstrate understanding.

• Writing vague evaluation without specific arguments — Instead of "some Christians agree while others disagree," explain why different Christians hold different views, using biblical references, theological concepts, or denominational positions.

• Confusing karma with punishment — Karma in Buddhism is cause and effect, not divine punishment. It's a natural law where intentional actions create consequences, not a deity deciding rewards or penalties.

• Not using religious terminology accurately — Learn precise terms like atonement, theodicy, ahimsa, dukkha, and use them correctly. This demonstrates knowledge and earns higher marks in both AO1 and AO2 questions.

• Ignoring the command word — "Explain" requires detail and examples; "Give" needs concise answers; "Discuss" demands arguments for different viewpoints. Tailor your answer structure to the command word used.

Exam technique for Issues of Good and Evil

• Identify the command word — "Explain" questions (typically 5 marks) need developed points with religious teachings and examples. "Evaluate/Discuss" questions (15 marks) require balanced arguments showing different perspectives plus a justified conclusion.

• Structure evaluation answers clearly — Use paragraphs beginning "Some people argue..." and "However, religious believers would respond..." to show you're considering multiple viewpoints. Always include both religious and non-religious perspectives when the question specifies this.

• Use SPaG marks strategically — In 15-mark questions, 3 marks go to spelling, punctuation, grammar, and specialist terminology. Write clearly, use paragraphs, and include terms like theodicy, atonement, karma, and compassion correctly.

• Support points with sources — Reference biblical passages (give book, chapter, verse when possible), Buddhist scriptures, or religious teachings. "Jesus taught in Matthew 18:22..." scores better than "Jesus said to forgive."

Quick revision summary

Issues of Good and Evil explores how religions explain suffering's existence and respond to wrongdoing. Christians use theodicies like Augustine's (Fall and sin) and Irenaeus's (soul-making) to reconcile God's goodness with evil's reality. Buddhism views suffering as universal, caused by craving, and overcome through the Eightfold Path. Both traditions emphasize forgiveness — Christians because God forgives through Jesus, Buddhists to release anger and reduce suffering. Moral guidance comes from the Bible and conscience for Christians, from the Five Precepts and karma for Buddhists. Views on punishment and capital punishment vary, balancing justice, mercy, and reformation.