What you'll learn
This topic explores one of the most challenging questions in religious belief: if God is all-loving and all-powerful, why does evil and suffering exist? You'll examine different types of evil, classical theodicies (attempts to justify God's existence alongside evil), and how religious believers respond to suffering. This is a high-tariff topic in WJEC GCSE Religious Education, frequently appearing in evaluation questions worth 12-15 marks.
Key terms and definitions
Moral evil — suffering caused by human actions and free will choices, such as murder, theft, war, or cruelty.
Natural evil — suffering caused by natural processes in the world, including earthquakes, diseases, floods, and hurricanes.
Theodicy — a philosophical or theological argument that attempts to justify God's goodness and omnipotence despite the existence of evil and suffering.
Inconsistent triad — the logical problem that God cannot be both all-powerful and all-loving if evil exists, as an all-loving God would want to remove evil and an all-powerful God would be able to do so.
Free will — the God-given human ability to make independent choices and decisions without divine interference.
Omnipotent — all-powerful; having unlimited power and ability.
Omnibenevolent — all-loving and perfectly good; a core attribute of God in monotheistic religions.
Privatio boni — Augustine's concept that evil is not a substance or creation but rather the absence or privation of good.
Core concepts
The Problem of Evil and Suffering
The problem of evil challenges the traditional understanding of God's nature. Religious believers typically assert that God is:
- Omnipotent (all-powerful)
- Omnibenevolent (all-loving)
- Omniscient (all-knowing)
Yet evil and suffering clearly exist in the world. This creates a logical inconsistency:
- If God is all-loving, He would want to prevent suffering
- If God is all-powerful, He could prevent suffering
- But suffering exists
- Therefore, either God is not all-loving, not all-powerful, or does not exist
This logical problem, often called the inconsistent triad, has troubled philosophers and theologians throughout history. David Hume famously articulated this problem in his "Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion."
Types of Evil
Understanding the distinction between types of evil is crucial for WJEC exam responses.
Moral Evil:
- Results directly from human choices and actions
- Examples include: genocide, terrorism, child abuse, theft, corruption
- The Holocaust represents a profound example of moral evil
- Raises questions about why God gave humans free will if they would misuse it
- Some argue this type of evil is necessary for genuine free choice to exist
Natural Evil:
- Occurs through natural processes without human intervention
- Examples include: the 2004 Asian tsunami, cancer, the 2010 Haiti earthquake, COVID-19 pandemic
- Particularly challenging for theodicies because humans cannot be blamed
- Questions why God designed a world with destructive natural forces
- Makes the problem of evil harder to resolve than moral evil alone
The Augustinian Theodicy
St Augustine of Hippo (354-430 CE) developed an influential theodicy based on biblical accounts and Neoplatonic philosophy.
Key arguments:
- God created a perfect world with no evil or suffering
- Evil entered through the Fall of Man when Adam and Eve disobeyed God in the Garden of Eden
- Evil is not a substance created by God but privatio boni (the absence of good)
- Just as darkness is merely the absence of light, evil is the absence of good
- Humans possessed free will and chose to turn away from God
- Natural evil and suffering result from the disruption of the created order after the Fall
- Death, disease, and natural disasters are consequences of original sin
Strengths:
- Explains both moral and natural evil through one cause
- Maintains God's goodness by denying He created evil
- Consistent with biblical teaching in Genesis
- Accounts for why humans experience suffering
Weaknesses:
- Relies on a literal interpretation of Genesis, contradicting evolutionary science
- Questions why God allowed the serpent in the Garden
- Difficult to accept that all suffering results from one ancient act
- Seems unjust that all humanity is punished for Adam and Eve's actions
- Modern Christians may struggle with the concept of inherited guilt
The Irenaean Theodicy
Irenaeus of Lyons (130-202 CE) proposed an alternative approach, later developed by John Hick into the soul-making theodicy.
Key arguments:
- God deliberately created an imperfect world as a "vale of soul-making"
- Humans were created immature, with potential to develop into God's likeness
- Evil and suffering provide necessary challenges for spiritual growth
- Facing difficulties builds virtues like courage, compassion, and patience
- Free will allows genuine moral choices that develop character
- The process continues after death, with eventual universal salvation
- This world functions as a testing ground or development arena
Strengths:
- Compatible with evolutionary science
- Explains why God permits evil (for human development)
- More optimistic about human potential
- Addresses why a loving God wouldn't create "ready-made" perfect beings (genuine goodness must be chosen)
- Makes sense of suffering that leads to personal growth
Weaknesses:
- Doesn't explain excessive or pointless suffering (child dying of cancer)
- Suggests the end justifies the means (suffering as a tool)
- Some suffering appears to destroy rather than build character
- Questions why an omnipotent God needs this method
- Universal salvation may undermine moral seriousness
Religious Responses to Evil and Suffering
Christian responses:
- Jesus Christ suffered on the cross, showing God shares in human suffering
- The crucifixion demonstrates that suffering can have redemptive purpose
- Prayer provides comfort and strength during trials
- The Book of Job teaches that humans cannot fully understand God's purposes
- Practical action through Christian charity (food banks, homeless shelters, aid organizations)
- Belief in eternal life in Heaven where suffering ends
- 2 Corinthians 1:3-4 describes God as the "Father of compassion and the God of all comfort"
Buddhist responses:
- The Four Noble Truths acknowledge suffering (dukkha) as fundamental to existence
- Suffering arises from attachment and craving (tanha)
- Buddhism doesn't face the same problem as monotheistic religions because it doesn't affirm an omnipotent creator God
- Karma explains suffering as consequences of past actions in this or previous lives
- The path to ending suffering involves following the Noble Eightfold Path
- Compassion (karuna) motivates helping others who suffer
- Meditation develops detachment and reduces suffering
Hindu responses:
- Karma and samsara (reincarnation) explain suffering as results of past-life actions
- Suffering provides opportunities to work through karmic debt
- Dharma (duty) includes responding compassionately to others' suffering
- Different life circumstances reflect spiritual development stages
- Ultimate goal is moksha (liberation from the cycle of suffering)
Jewish responses:
- The Holocaust poses profound questions for Jewish theodicy
- Some interpret suffering as a test of faith (like Abraham)
- Tikkun olam (repairing the world) emphasizes human responsibility to reduce suffering
- The covenant relationship with God doesn't guarantee freedom from suffering
- Questioning God is permitted (as in Job and Psalms)
- Practical mitzvot (commandments) include feeding the hungry and visiting the sick
Atheist Perspectives
Many atheists argue the problem of evil provides strong evidence against God's existence:
- The sheer scale and intensity of suffering seems incompatible with an all-loving God
- No theodicy adequately explains seemingly pointless suffering
- Evolution by natural selection explains natural evil without requiring God
- Human morality can exist without divine foundation
- Resources spent on worship could better address actual suffering
Worked examples
Example 1: AO1 question (5 marks)
"Explain two Christian teachings about moral evil." (5 marks)
Model answer:
One Christian teaching is that moral evil results from the misuse of free will (1 mark). God gave humans the ability to make genuine choices, and moral evil occurs when people choose to act against God's will, such as committing murder or theft (development for 1 mark). Genesis describes how Adam and Eve's disobedient choice brought sin into the world (1 mark).
A second teaching is that Jesus Christ's sacrifice addresses moral evil (1 mark). Christians believe that through his death and resurrection, Jesus made it possible for humans to be forgiven for their sinful actions and to be reconciled with God, showing that God has provided a solution to the problem of moral evil (development for 1 mark).
Example 2: AO2 evaluation question (15 marks)
"The existence of suffering proves that God does not exist." Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (15 marks)
Model answer structure:
Arguments supporting the statement:
- The inconsistent triad demonstrates logical incompatibility between God's omnibenevolence, omnipotence, and the existence of suffering
- Natural evil (tsunamis killing thousands) particularly challenges belief in a loving God
- Excessive suffering (children with terminal cancer) seems to serve no purpose
- If theodicies like Augustine's or Irenaeus's fail to convince, suffering remains unexplained
Arguments against the statement:
- Augustinian theodicy explains suffering as consequence of human sin, not God's creation
- Irenaean theodicy shows suffering enables soul-making and genuine free will
- Jesus's suffering on the cross shows God shares in human pain
- Humans cannot fully comprehend God's purposes (Book of Job)
- Suffering leads to compassion, bravery, and other virtues
Evaluation and conclusion:
- Consider which arguments are stronger and why
- Personal reasoned conclusion with justification
Example 3: AO1 question (8 marks)
"Explain how the Irenaean theodicy attempts to solve the problem of evil." (8 marks)
Model answer:
The Irenaean theodicy, developed by Irenaeus and later John Hick, argues that God deliberately created an imperfect world where evil and suffering exist (2 marks). This is because humans were created immature and need to develop spiritually into God's likeness, which requires facing challenges and difficulties (2 marks).
The theodicy suggests the world functions as a "vale of soul-making" where encountering evil enables humans to develop virtues such as courage, compassion, and patience (2 marks). For example, without suffering, nobody could demonstrate genuine care for others. Ultimately, this process leads to spiritual growth, with Hick believing in universal salvation where all eventually reach perfection (2 marks).
Common mistakes and how to avoid them
Mistake: Confusing moral and natural evil, or using them interchangeably. Correction: Always specify the type of evil and remember moral evil comes from human choices (murder, theft) while natural evil comes from natural processes (earthquakes, disease).
Mistake: Describing theodicies without explaining how they address the problem of evil. Correction: Always connect theodicies back to the inconsistent triad, showing how they attempt to reconcile God's nature with suffering's existence.
Mistake: Writing that Augustine or Irenaeus "solved" the problem. Correction: Use language like "attempted to justify," "argued that," or "explained" because theodicies remain contested and haven't definitively solved the problem.
Mistake: Stating generic responses like "Christians pray" without development. Correction: Explain specifically how the response addresses suffering (e.g., "Christians pray for strength to endure suffering, believing God provides comfort and that prayer deepens their relationship with God during trials").
Mistake: Including too much biographical detail about Augustine or Irenaeus instead of focusing on their actual arguments. Correction: Focus on the theological content of theodicies rather than historical background.
Mistake: Failing to use technical terminology. Correction: Use precise terms like omnipotent, omnibenevolent, privatio boni, free will, and inconsistent triad to demonstrate subject knowledge.
Exam technique for Issues of Good and Evil
AO1 questions (describe/explain) require accurate knowledge of types of evil, specific theodicies, and religious teachings. Structure answers using point-evidence-explain format. For 5-mark questions, provide two developed points with examples or quotations.
AO2 evaluation questions (discuss/evaluate) demand balanced arguments. Present at least two arguments supporting the statement and two challenging it. Include evidence from theodicies, religious teachings, and philosophical arguments. Conclude with a justified personal viewpoint that weighs the arguments presented.
Command words matter: "Explain" requires demonstrating understanding with development and examples. "Discuss" or "Evaluate" requires weighing different viewpoints. "Give two examples" needs two distinct, developed illustrations.
Use religious terminology and quotations: Reference biblical passages (Genesis, Job, 2 Corinthians), theological concepts (imago dei, original sin), and named scholars (Augustine, Irenaeus, John Hick, David Hume). This demonstrates depth of knowledge and can access higher mark bands.
Quick revision summary
The problem of evil questions how an omnipotent, omnibenevolent God can coexist with suffering. Moral evil stems from human choices; natural evil from natural processes. The Augustinian theodicy blames the Fall and sees evil as privatio boni. The Irenaean theodicy presents the world as soul-making, where suffering enables spiritual growth. Religious responses include prayer, charitable action, and belief in afterlife justice. Atheists argue evil evidences God's non-existence, while believers maintain various theodicies and faith perspectives. Understanding the inconsistent triad and evaluating theodicies' strengths and weaknesses proves essential for exam success.