Issues of Human Rights: religious freedom and the right to practise religion

What you'll learn

This topic examines religious freedom as a fundamental human right, exploring how individuals and communities exercise their right to practise religion and the challenges they face. You will need to understand the legal frameworks protecting religious freedom, explain religious and non-religious perspectives on these rights, and evaluate real-world conflicts between religious freedom and other rights. WJEC exam questions frequently test your ability to apply religious teachings to human rights issues and assess contemporary challenges to religious practice.

Key terms and definitions

Religious freedom — the right to hold, change and practise any religion or belief without interference from the state or others, protected under Article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR).

Article 9 of the ECHR — the European Convention on Human Rights article that protects freedom of thought, conscience and religion, including the right to manifest beliefs in worship, teaching, practice and observance.

Persecution — systematic mistreatment or harassment of individuals or groups because of their religious beliefs, ranging from discrimination to violence and imprisonment.

Proselytisation — actively attempting to convert people from one religion to another, which can be protected as free expression or restricted as coercion depending on methods used.

Blasphemy — the act of insulting or showing contempt for God or sacred things; laws criminalising blasphemy conflict with freedom of expression in many countries.

Accommodation — adjustments made by employers, schools or institutions to allow individuals to practise their religion, such as prayer breaks or dietary requirements.

Conscientious objection — refusing to perform certain duties or actions because they conflict with one's religious or moral beliefs.

Secularism — the principle that government institutions and the state should exist separately from religious institutions and not favour any particular religion.

Core concepts

The legal basis for religious freedom

The right to religious freedom is enshrined in multiple international and national legal instruments:

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) — Article 18 states that everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, including the freedom to change religion and to manifest beliefs in teaching, practice, worship and observance.

European Convention on Human Rights — Article 9 protects:

• Freedom to hold any belief (absolute right — cannot be limited)
• Freedom to manifest belief (qualified right — can be limited if necessary for public safety, health, morals or the rights of others)

UK Human Rights Act 1998 incorporated the ECHR into British law, making religious freedom directly enforceable in UK courts.

Equality Act 2010 protects individuals from discrimination based on religion or belief in employment, education and provision of services.

These legal frameworks mean that in WJEC exam questions, you can reference specific Articles when discussing how religious freedom is protected or challenged.

Religious perspectives on the right to practise religion

Christian perspectives:

• Christians believe religious freedom reflects human dignity as people are made in the image of God (Genesis 1:27)
• Jesus taught his followers to spread the Gospel freely: "Go and make disciples of all nations" (Matthew 28:19), supporting freedom to share faith
• The Catholic Church's Vatican II document Dignitatis Humanae (1965) declared that religious freedom is a fundamental right based on human dignity
• Christians have experienced both persecution (early Church under Roman Empire) and have persecuted others (Inquisition), leading to recognition that forced conversion contradicts Jesus' teaching on love
• Practical application: Churches campaign against religious persecution worldwide through organisations like Open Doors and Christian Solidarity Worldwide

Muslim perspectives:

• The Qur'an states "There is no compulsion in religion" (Surah 2:256), establishing that faith must be freely chosen
• Muslims believe they have a duty to practise the Five Pillars, making religious freedom essential for fulfilling obligations to Allah
• The concept of ummah (worldwide Muslim community) means Muslims feel responsibility to support persecuted Muslims globally
• Islamic teaching protects dhimmi (non-Muslims living in Muslim lands) and historically allowed Jews and Christians to practise their faiths
• Practical application: Islamic Relief and Muslim Aid work to protect religious minorities and campaign against Islamophobia

Humanist perspectives:

• Humanists support Article 18 of the UDHR as essential for individual autonomy and dignity
• They advocate strongly for freedom from religion as well as freedom of religion — people should not be forced to participate in religious practices
• Humanists oppose religious privilege (established churches, faith schools funded by the state) while defending the right to private belief and worship
• Organisations like Humanists UK campaign for secular societies where no religion receives state preference
• Humanists particularly defend the right to leave religion and the rights of non-believers

Contemporary challenges to religious freedom

Persecution of religious minorities:

Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar have faced ethnic cleansing since 2016, with over 700,000 fleeing to Bangladesh. The military destroyed mosques, prevented religious practice and committed mass atrocities. This represents one of the most severe contemporary examples of religious persecution.

Christians in North Korea face imprisonment in labour camps for owning Bibles or attending secret worship services. Religious practice is effectively banned, with state ideology replacing religion.

Uighur Muslims in China experience mass detention in "re-education camps," destruction of mosques, and forced renunciation of Islamic practices as part of government efforts to suppress their religious and ethnic identity.

Religious symbols and dress in public spaces:

France's ban on conspicuous religious symbols in state schools (2004) and full-face veils in public (2010) creates tension between secularism (laïcité) and religious freedom. Supporters argue it promotes integration and gender equality; critics claim it targets Muslim women and violates religious freedom.

The burkini ban attempted by some French municipalities (2016) sparked debate about whether beach attire regulations or religious freedom should take precedence.

UK debates about Sikh police officers wearing turbans, Christian employees wearing crosses, and Muslim women wearing niqab in courts illustrate ongoing negotiation between religious expression and institutional requirements.

Conversion and proselytisation:

Anti-conversion laws in several Indian states prohibit forced or fraudulent religious conversion, but critics argue these laws are used to prevent legitimate conversions, particularly of Dalits and tribal people to Christianity or Islam.

Religious freedom includes the right to share one's faith, but aggressive conversion tactics raise questions about when persuasion becomes coercion.

Conflicts between religious freedom and other rights:

Religious objections to same-sex marriage create tensions when religious business owners refuse services for same-sex weddings. Cases like Ashers Bakery in Northern Ireland (2018) balanced religious conscience against discrimination law.

Religious adoption agencies that refuse to place children with same-sex couples face closure if they cannot reconcile religious teachings with equality legislation.

Medical professionals seeking conscientious objection to abortion or assisted dying must balance personal religious convictions with professional duties and patient rights.

Extremism and security concerns:

Governments restricting religious freedom in the name of counter-terrorism raises questions about proportionality. Prevent strategy in the UK has been criticised for creating suspicion around Muslim religious practice.

Closing of religious institutions suspected of promoting extremism balances security concerns with religious freedom, but requires careful evidence to avoid discrimination.

The role of religious organisations in protecting religious freedom

Religious groups often advocate beyond their own communities:

Christian organisations like Open Doors monitor persecution worldwide through the World Watch List, ranking countries by severity of persecution Christians face. They provide practical support and advocacy.

The Muslim Council of Britain campaigns against Islamophobia while also defending religious freedom for all faiths, recognising that protecting religious freedom broadly strengthens protection for Muslims.

Interfaith organisations bring together different religious communities to advocate jointly for religious freedom. The Inter Faith Network UK promotes understanding and defends the right of all faiths to practise freely.

Religious leaders issue joint statements condemning persecution of any religious group, demonstrating solidarity across faith boundaries.

Balancing religious freedom with other rights

WJEC questions often ask you to evaluate where limits on religious freedom might be justified:

Legitimate limitations under Article 9(2) of the ECHR include restrictions necessary for:

• Public safety (e.g., banning religious processions that create serious traffic dangers)
• Public health (e.g., requiring religious food preparation to meet hygiene standards)
• Protection of rights of others (e.g., preventing religiously-motivated discrimination)
• Public order (e.g., restricting highly provocative religious demonstrations)

Examples requiring balance:

• Religious slaughter methods (shechita and halal) versus animal welfare concerns
• Religious freedom to educate children in faith traditions versus children's rights to open education
• Religious objections to medical treatment versus safeguarding children's health
• Religious criticism of other beliefs versus protection from hate speech

Strong exam answers acknowledge competing rights, explain different perspectives using religious teachings, and reach a justified conclusion about how conflicts should be resolved.

Worked examples

Example 1: (d) question (15 marks)

"The right to practise religion should have no limits." Assess this statement showing you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.)

Mark scheme guidance: Level 5 (13-15 marks) requires excellent reasoning, detailed religious and non-religious views, well-developed arguments with thorough analysis, and excellent use of evidence and specialist language.

Model answer structure:

Introduction: Religious freedom is protected by Article 18 of the UDHR and Article 9 of the ECHR, but Article 9(2) allows limitations in specific circumstances, creating debate about where boundaries should lie.

Argument supporting no limits: Religious believers argue that freedom to practise religion is fundamental to human dignity. Christians believe humans are made in God's image (Genesis 1:27), meaning their right to worship God is sacred and should not be restricted. Muslims must fulfil the Five Pillars, which requires freedom to pray, fast during Ramadan, and make Hajj pilgrimage. If these practices are limited, Muslims cannot fulfil their religious obligations to Allah. The Qur'an teaches "There is no compulsion in religion" (2:256), suggesting that religious practice should be unrestricted. Historical persecution of religious minorities, like Jews during the Holocaust or Christians in the early Roman Empire, demonstrates the dangers of allowing governments to restrict religious freedom.

Argument supporting some limits: However, unlimited religious freedom can conflict with other fundamental rights. When religious practices cause direct harm to others, limitations may be justified. For example, if a religion permitted child sacrifice, this would violate children's right to life. Article 9(2) allows restrictions necessary for public safety, health, and protecting others' rights. Humanists argue that while freedom of belief should be absolute, manifestation of belief can be limited when it infringes others' rights. The case of Ashers Bakery refusing to make a cake with a pro-same-sex marriage message balanced religious conscience against discrimination law, showing that religious freedom cannot always override other protected rights. Female genital mutilation is prohibited even when claimed as religious practice, because it causes serious harm.

Evaluation: The strongest position recognises that freedom to hold beliefs must be absolute, but manifestation of beliefs can be limited in narrow circumstances when necessary to prevent direct harm or protect equally important rights. This reflects the distinction in Article 9 between belief (absolute) and manifestation (qualified). Most religious believers accept reasonable limitations that prevent harm while strongly opposing restrictions that simply inconvenience the majority or reflect prejudice against minority faiths.

Example 2: (c) question (8 marks)

Explain how religious believers respond to the persecution of religious minorities.

Mark scheme guidance: Level 4 (7-8 marks) requires excellent understanding, fully developed explanation, coherent account, excellent use of specialist language.

Model answer:

Religious believers respond to persecution through advocacy, practical support and interfaith solidarity. Christian organisations like Open Doors monitor religious persecution worldwide through their World Watch List, ranking countries by severity. They campaign for imprisoned believers, providing legal support and raising awareness through congregations. For example, Open Doors supports persecuted Christians in North Korea where owning a Bible leads to labour camp imprisonment.

Muslims emphasise the concept of ummah (worldwide Muslim community), creating responsibility to support persecuted Muslims. Islamic Relief and Muslim Aid provide humanitarian assistance to Rohingya Muslims fleeing genocide in Myanmar, while also campaigning for international intervention. The Muslim Council of Britain has spoken against persecution of Christians and Yazidis, recognising that protecting religious freedom broadly strengthens rights for all.

Interfaith organisations bring different religious communities together to advocate jointly. The Inter Faith Network UK coordinates responses to persecution, with religious leaders issuing joint statements condemning attacks on synagogues, mosques, churches and temples. This solidarity demonstrates that religious freedom is a universal right transcending individual faiths.

Many religious believers also respond through prayer, as taught in 1 Timothy 2:1-2 which instructs Christians to pray "for all people" including those in authority, that believers may live peaceful lives. Muslims pray for oppressed members of the ummah during Friday prayers.

Common mistakes and how to avoid them

Mistake: Claiming religious freedom is absolute with no possible limitations. Correction: Distinguish between freedom to hold beliefs (absolute right under Article 9) and freedom to manifest beliefs (qualified right that can be limited for public safety, health or protecting others' rights). Strong answers explain this distinction.

Mistake: Using vague statements like "Christians believe everyone should be free" without specific teachings or examples. Correction: Reference specific Biblical passages (Genesis 1:27 on human dignity, Matthew 28:19 on spreading faith), theological concepts (Vatican II's Dignitatis Humanae), and concrete examples of Christian organisations (Open Doors, Christian Solidarity Worldwide) responding to persecution.

Mistake: Treating all religious perspectives as identical on religious freedom. Correction: Show how different religions approach religious freedom from their own theological frameworks — Christians emphasise human dignity and evangelism, Muslims focus on fulfilling obligations to Allah and the ummah, Humanists stress autonomy and freedom from religious coercion.

Mistake: Describing persecution only in historical terms (Roman Empire, Inquisition) without contemporary examples. Correction: WJEC mark schemes reward current examples. Use Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar, Uighurs in China, Christians in North Korea, or recent UK cases like Ashers Bakery to demonstrate up-to-date knowledge.

Mistake: Ignoring non-religious perspectives in evaluation questions. Correction: Assessment questions require "more than one point of view." Always include Humanist or secular perspectives on religious freedom, explaining how they value freedom of conscience while advocating for secular governance.

Mistake: Confusing religious freedom with freedom of speech without acknowledging they are distinct rights that sometimes conflict. Correction: Explain that while religious freedom protects practising religion, it intersects with but differs from free expression. Blasphemy laws show tension between protecting religious sensibilities and protecting free speech.

Exam technique for Issues of Human Rights: religious freedom and the right to practise religion

Command word recognition:

• Explain questions (8 marks) require developed points with religious teachings and examples. Aim for three developed paragraphs, each making a distinct point about how or why religious freedom operates.
• Assess/Evaluate questions (15 marks) require balanced arguments showing different perspectives (religious and non-religious), analysis of strengths and weaknesses, and a reasoned conclusion. Spend 18-20 minutes on these questions.

Structure for evaluation questions:

• Brief introduction defining religious freedom and acknowledging debate
• Two substantial arguments supporting one position (with religious teachings, examples, reasoning)
• Two substantial counter-arguments (including non-religious perspectives)
• Evaluative conclusion weighing the arguments and reaching a justified position
• Use paragraph breaks to signal shifts between arguments

Evidence expectations:

• Scripture: Cite specific Biblical passages (Genesis 1:27, Matthew 28:19, 1 Timothy 2:1-2) or Qur'anic verses (Surah 2:256)
• Legal frameworks: Reference UDHR Article 18, ECHR Article 9, UK Equality Act 2010
• Real examples: Use named contemporary cases (Rohingya persecution, Ashers Bakery, French hijab ban)
• Religious concepts: Deploy specialist terms (ummah, laïcité, proselytisation, conscientious objection)

Marks-per-point patterns:

• 8-mark questions: Aim for 3 developed points (each approximately 2-3 marks with explanation and example)
• 15-mark questions: Marks awarded for quality of reasoning and analysis, not just number of points. Depth matters more than breadth.

Quick revision summary

Religious freedom — the right to hold and practise any religion — is protected by UDHR Article 18 and ECHR Article 9. Christians support religious freedom based on human dignity (Genesis 1:27); Muslims emphasise "no compulsion in religion" (Qur'an 2:256); Humanists advocate freedom from religious coercion. Contemporary challenges include persecution of Rohingya Muslims and Uighurs, restrictions on religious dress in France, and conflicts between religious freedom and equality rights (Ashers Bakery case). Religious organisations like Open Doors and Islamic Relief respond through advocacy and practical support. While freedom to hold beliefs is absolute, manifestation can be limited for public safety or protecting others' rights under Article 9(2).