What you'll learn
This topic examines one of the most contested issues in contemporary society: abortion. You need to understand contrasting religious and non-religious perspectives on when life begins, the moral status of the foetus, and the circumstances under which abortion might be justified. The WJEC GCSE Religious Education specification requires detailed knowledge of Christian and Islamic teachings, secular ethical frameworks, and the ability to evaluate competing arguments using religious and philosophical reasoning.
Key terms and definitions
Abortion — the deliberate termination of a pregnancy, usually before the foetus can survive independently (typically before 24 weeks in UK law)
Sanctity of life — the belief that life is sacred and holy because it is created by God, giving it intrinsic value that must be protected
Quality of life — the assessment of how comfortable, healthy and fulfilling a person's life is, used in ethical arguments about whether life is worth living
Pro-choice — the position supporting a woman's legal right to choose whether to continue or terminate a pregnancy
Pro-life — the position opposing abortion, believing that life begins at conception and must be protected from that point
Conception — the moment when sperm fertilises an egg, creating a zygote with unique DNA
Ensoulment — the point at which religious traditions believe the soul enters the body, giving the foetus full moral status
Situation Ethics — a relativist Christian ethical theory developed by Joseph Fletcher arguing that the most loving action in each situation is the right one
Core concepts
UK law and abortion statistics
The Abortion Act 1967 (amended 1990) permits abortion in England, Scotland and Wales up to 24 weeks of pregnancy when two doctors agree that continuing the pregnancy involves greater risk to the physical or mental health of the woman or existing children than termination would. Abortion is permitted after 24 weeks only when:
- The woman's life is at risk
- There would be permanent serious injury to the woman's physical or mental health
- There is substantial risk that the child would be born with severe physical or mental abnormalities
Around 200,000 abortions occur annually in England and Wales. The law does not apply in Northern Ireland, where legislation differs. Understanding this legal framework is essential for WJEC exam answers because religious and ethical arguments often reference what the law permits versus what various belief systems consider morally acceptable.
Christian perspectives on abortion
Christianity contains diverse views on abortion, but most denominations share core principles based on Biblical teaching and theological interpretation.
Catholic Church position:
- Abortion is always gravely wrong and constitutes murder
- Life begins at conception; the embryo possesses full human dignity from fertilisation
- Based on Biblical passages including Psalm 139:13 ("you knit me together in my mother's womb") and Jeremiah 1:5 ("before I formed you in the womb I knew you")
- The Catechism of the Catholic Church states: "Human life must be respected and protected absolutely from the moment of conception"
- Even in cases of rape, severe disability or risk to the mother, direct abortion is forbidden (principle of double effect may allow treatment that indirectly causes foetal death)
- Excommunication is the penalty for procuring abortion
Church of England position:
- More nuanced; acknowledges the "lesser of two evils" argument
- Abortion is generally wrong but may be morally justified in extreme circumstances
- Recognises the foetus has moral status but this increases throughout pregnancy
- Emphasises compassion for women facing difficult choices
- Many Anglican clergy support the current legal framework as a reasonable balance
Evangelical Protestant views:
- Generally pro-life, citing the sanctity of life principle
- Many believe life begins at conception based on Genesis 1:27 ("God created mankind in his own image")
- Emphasise the commandment "You shall not murder" (Exodus 20:13)
- Some accept abortion when the mother's life is endangered
Liberal Christian perspectives:
- Situation Ethics approaches argue each case must be judged individually
- Joseph Fletcher's principle of agape (unconditional love) asks: what is the most loving action for all involved?
- May prioritise the woman's wellbeing, existing family responsibilities, and quality of life considerations
- Support women's autonomy and moral decision-making capacity
Islamic perspectives on abortion
Islam's position on abortion varies by school of thought but follows general principles from the Qur'an and Hadith.
Ensoulment at 120 days:
- Many Muslim scholars believe the soul enters the foetus at 120 days (approximately 17 weeks) based on Hadith narrated by Abdullah ibn Mas'ud
- Before ensoulment, abortion is viewed differently than after
- After 120 days, abortion is haram (forbidden) except when the mother's life is at serious risk
Before ensoulment:
- Hanafi school: permits abortion before 120 days with valid reason (severe hardship, health concerns)
- Maliki school: strictest position; generally opposes abortion even before 120 days
- Shafi'i and Hanbali schools: permit abortion in very limited circumstances before ensoulment
Key Islamic principles:
- Qur'an 17:31 — "Do not kill your children for fear of poverty"
- Qur'an 6:151 — "Do not take a human life—which God has made sacred—except for justice"
- The mother's life takes priority: if pregnancy threatens her survival, abortion is permitted (even required)
- Compassion and mercy (Rahman and Rahim, names of Allah) inform ethical reasoning
Contemporary issues:
- Cases of rape, incest or severe foetal abnormality are debated among Islamic scholars
- Some scholars permit abortion in rape cases, particularly before ensoulment
- Others maintain strict prohibition, emphasising the foetus's innocence
Non-religious ethical arguments
Utilitarian perspectives:
- Utilitarianism seeks the greatest happiness for the greatest number
- Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill would assess consequences of abortion versus bringing pregnancy to term
- Factors considered: woman's future happiness, existing children's welfare, potential child's quality of life, societal resources
- May justify abortion when preventing greater suffering (severe disability, extreme poverty, danger to mother)
- Critics argue this devalues the foetus's interests
Personhood arguments:
- Mary Anne Warren argued foetuses lack personhood characteristics: consciousness, reasoning, self-motivated activity, communication, self-awareness
- Without personhood, abortion does not violate rights
- Peter Singer extends this, controversially arguing newborns also lack full personhood
- Don Marquis counters that abortion is wrong because it deprives the foetus of a "future like ours"
Women's rights and autonomy:
- Judith Jarvis Thomson's "violinist argument": even if the foetus has rights, women aren't obligated to sacrifice bodily autonomy
- Pro-choice position emphasises reproductive freedom as fundamental human right
- Women's health, education, career prospects and existing responsibilities must be considered
- Feminist perspectives highlight historical male control over women's bodies
Quality of life arguments:
- When severe disability, terminal illness or extreme suffering is certain, quality of life may justify abortion
- Prevents suffering for both child and family
- Critics argue this discriminates against disabled people and promotes eugenics
- Counter-argument: many disabled people live fulfilling lives; predictions of suffering are uncertain
The status of the foetus
Central to abortion debates is determining when the foetus becomes morally considerable:
At conception:
- Unique genetic identity established
- Catholic, Evangelical and pro-life position
- Problem: high natural miscarriage rate (30-50% of fertilised eggs)
At implantation (6-7 days):
- When embryo attaches to uterine wall
- Allows for emergency contraception distinction
At development of nervous system (6-8 weeks):
- Basic neural structures form
- Capacity for sentience begins developing
At quickening (16-20 weeks):
- When mother first feels movement
- Historical Christian position before modern embryology
At viability (22-24 weeks):
- When foetus could survive outside womb with medical support
- Basis for UK legal limit
- Problem: viability changes with medical technology
At birth:
- Legal personhood granted
- Criticised as arbitrary (minimal difference between late-term foetus and newborn)
Contextual factors in abortion decisions
WJEC exam questions often present scenarios requiring application of religious and ethical principles to specific circumstances:
Rape and incest:
- Heightened moral complexity; woman had no choice in conception
- Most Islamic scholars permit abortion before ensoulment
- Some Christian traditions maintain prohibition; others show compassion
- Secular ethics typically support woman's choice
Foetal abnormality:
- Severe disabilities (anencephaly, Trisomy 18) versus manageable conditions (Down's syndrome)
- Questions about quality versus sanctity of life
- UK law permits late-term abortion for "serious abnormalities"
- Disability rights advocates criticise selective abortion
Risk to mother's health:
- Physical danger: ectopic pregnancy, severe pre-eclampsia, cancer requiring treatment
- Mental health considerations (though controversial)
- Virtually all religious traditions permit abortion when mother's life is genuinely threatened
- Principle of self-defence; mother's established life takes precedence
Social and economic factors:
- Poverty, lack of support, educational/career implications
- Age (very young mothers, older pregnancies with complications)
- Relationship status, domestic violence
- Religious traditions generally reject these as sufficient justification
- Secular ethics gives more weight to social circumstances
Worked examples
Example 1: AO1 Knowledge Question
"Explain Christian teachings about abortion." [5 marks]
Model answer:
Most Christians believe in the sanctity of life, the principle that life is sacred because it is created by God. The Catholic Church teaches that life begins at conception and abortion is always wrong, constituting murder. This is based on Biblical passages such as Psalm 139 which states "you knit me together in my mother's womb," suggesting God creates life from the earliest stages. Catholics also reference the commandment "You shall not murder" and believe the embryo has full human dignity from fertilisation.
However, the Church of England takes a more compassionate approach, recognising that abortion may be the "lesser of two evils" in extreme circumstances such as when the mother's life is at risk. Anglican Christians acknowledge the foetus has moral status but believe this must be balanced against other moral considerations, including the woman's wellbeing.
Examiner guidance: This answer demonstrates detailed knowledge (AO1) by explaining two contrasting Christian positions with specific teachings, Biblical references, and key terminology like sanctity of life. It would achieve full marks.
Example 2: AO2 Evaluation Question
"'Abortion is never justified.' Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.)" [15 marks]
Model answer structure:
Arguments supporting the statement:
Catholic Christians would agree because they believe life is sacred from conception and abortion violates the commandment against murder. Biblical passages like Jeremiah 1:5 show God values life before birth. The embryo is an innocent human being with potential and rights that must be protected. Many Muslims would also agree for abortions after 120 days (ensoulment), as the Qur'an teaches not to kill children and forbids taking life that God has made sacred except for justice.
Arguments against the statement:
Situation Ethics would disagree because Joseph Fletcher argued the most loving (agape) action depends on circumstances. If a woman was raped, forcing her to continue the pregnancy might cause severe trauma, and abortion could be the most compassionate choice. Similarly, if tests show the baby has a fatal condition like anencephaly and will die shortly after birth, allowing abortion might prevent greater suffering for both mother and child.
Some Muslims permit abortion before ensoulment (120 days) in cases of rape or when the mother's life is endangered, showing abortion can be justified in specific situations. Quality of life arguments suggest that bringing a child into severe poverty or when the mother is too young to care for it may cause more harm than abortion.
Evaluation and conclusion:
The strongest position considers both the moral status of the foetus and the specific circumstances. While sanctity of life is an important principle, absolute positions may lack compassion. Islamic teaching that permits abortion to save the mother's life shows even religious traditions recognise exceptions. However, allowing abortion for social convenience undervalues potential life. A balanced view accepts abortion in extreme cases (rape, fatal abnormality, danger to mother) while maintaining that foetal life deserves protection in most circumstances.
Examiner guidance: This answer addresses AO2 requirements by presenting contrasting viewpoints with religious references, evaluating different positions, and reaching a justified conclusion. It demonstrates analysis and critical thinking required for top marks.
Example 3: Short AO1 Question
"What is meant by 'quality of life'?" [2 marks]
Model answer:
Quality of life refers to how comfortable, healthy and fulfilling someone's life is. In abortion debates, it is used to argue that if a foetus would be born with severe disabilities or into circumstances causing great suffering, abortion might be justified.
Common mistakes and how to avoid them
Mistake: Stating "all Christians oppose abortion" or "Christianity forbids abortion" Correction: Christianity contains diverse views. Specify which denomination or tradition you mean (Catholic Church absolutely opposes; Church of England permits in some circumstances; liberal Christians apply Situation Ethics). Always show awareness of different Christian perspectives.
Mistake: Confusing Islamic ensoulment timing or claiming Islam completely forbids abortion Correction: Most Islamic scholars place ensoulment at 120 days, creating different rules before and after this point. Always distinguish between before and after ensoulment, and note that protecting the mother's life takes priority even in strict interpretations.
Mistake: Presenting only religious views without non-religious perspectives in evaluation questions Correction: WJEC marking requires "religion and belief" including non-religious viewpoints. Include utilitarian arguments, personhood theories, or women's autonomy alongside religious teachings for balanced answers.
Mistake: Using vague phrases like "the Bible says abortion is wrong" without specific references Correction: The Bible never explicitly mentions abortion. Reference specific passages (Psalm 139:13, Jeremiah 1:5, Exodus 20:13) and explain how Christians interpret these to apply to abortion, demonstrating precise knowledge.
Mistake: Ignoring the distinction between moral and legal positions Correction: UK law permits abortion up to 24 weeks; this differs from what religious traditions teach is morally right. High-level answers acknowledge this difference and may discuss whether law should reflect religious morality in pluralistic society.
Mistake: Writing evaluation answers that only describe different views without actually evaluating Correction: Evaluation (AO2) requires analysis of strengths/weaknesses of positions, comparison of arguments, and justified conclusions. Use phrases like "this argument is convincing because..." or "however, this position is problematic when..." rather than just listing views.
Exam technique for Issues of Life and Death: abortion
Command word recognition:
- "Explain" (AO1, typically 5 marks): Provide detailed knowledge of religious teachings with specific references, terminology and examples. Two developed points with supporting detail achieves full marks.
- "Discuss" / "Evaluate" (AO2, typically 15 marks): Present multiple perspectives, analyse strengths and weaknesses, and reach a justified conclusion. Must include religious and non-religious views with sustained reasoning throughout.
Structure for 15-mark evaluation questions:
- Brief introduction acknowledging the statement (1 sentence)
- Arguments supporting the statement with religious references (2-3 paragraphs)
- Arguments opposing the statement with contrasting religious/non-religious views (2-3 paragraphs)
- Analysis comparing strength of arguments (1-2 paragraphs)
- Justified personal conclusion (1 paragraph)
Maximising marks:
- Use specific religious terminology: sanctity of life, ensoulment, agape, haram, Situation Ethics
- Reference sacred texts accurately: Psalm 139, Qur'an 17:31, Catechism of the Catholic Church
- Name religious authorities: Catholic Church, Hanafi school, Joseph Fletcher
- Apply teachings to realistic scenarios: rape, disability, danger to mother
- In evaluation, explicitly compare arguments: "while X is persuasive... Y provides a stronger counter-argument because..."
Timing strategy:
- 5-mark questions: 6 minutes (detailed but focused)
- 15-mark questions: 18 minutes (allow time for planning and conclusion)
- Leave 2-3 minutes to check religious terms are spelled correctly and references are accurate
Quick revision summary
Abortion raises questions about when life begins and whose rights take priority. Catholic Christians believe life is sacred from conception, making abortion always wrong (Psalm 139, sanctity of life). The Church of England permits it in extreme cases. Islam generally forbids abortion after ensoulment (120 days) but allows it to save the mother. Non-religious ethics include utilitarian calculations of happiness, personhood arguments about foetal moral status, and women's autonomy. Quality versus sanctity of life debates centre on disability, rape, and risk to the mother. WJEC questions test knowledge of specific teachings (AO1) and ability to evaluate competing perspectives with religious reasoning (AO2).