What you'll learn
This topic examines how religious beliefs can inspire both warfare and violence, exploring concepts of holy war, Just War Theory, and contemporary religion-inspired violence including terrorism. You'll study Christian and Islamic perspectives on when, if ever, violence can be justified for religious reasons. This material appears regularly in WJEC GCSE Religious Education exam questions worth 2-5 marks, particularly evaluative questions requiring you to present contrasting religious viewpoints.
Key terms and definitions
Holy war — warfare believed to be commanded by God or fought to defend the faith, with participants often promised spiritual rewards
Just War Theory — a set of criteria developed by Christian thinkers (notably St Augustine and St Thomas Aquinas) to determine when war is morally justifiable
Jihad — an Islamic concept meaning "struggle" or "striving"; can refer to internal spiritual struggle (greater jihad) or armed defence of Islam (lesser jihad)
Pacifism — the belief that all violence and war is wrong and that disputes should be settled peacefully
Terrorism — the use of violence and intimidation, especially against civilians, to achieve political or religious aims
Martyrdom — willingly accepting death for one's religious beliefs; interpretations vary between dying peacefully for faith versus using violence
Crusades — medieval military campaigns (1095-1291) sanctioned by the Pope to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim control
Religious extremism — holding extreme religious views that may lead to intolerance, discrimination, or violence against those with different beliefs
Core concepts
The concept of holy war in Christianity
Christianity has a complex relationship with the concept of holy war. Early Christians were predominantly pacifist, following Jesus's teachings: "Blessed are the peacemakers" (Matthew 5:9) and "Put your sword back in its place, for all who draw the sword will die by the sword" (Matthew 26:52).
However, the development of Just War Theory represented a shift in Christian thinking:
- St Augustine of Hippo (4th-5th century) argued that Christians could participate in warfare if it met certain moral criteria
- War must be defensive and aim to restore peace, not motivated by cruelty or desire for power
- The intention must be to establish good and avoid evil
St Thomas Aquinas (13th century) refined these ideas into specific Just War criteria:
- Proper authority — war must be declared by legitimate rulers, not private individuals
- Just cause — must be fighting a real injustice, typically self-defence or protecting innocents
- Right intention — must aim for peace and justice, not revenge or conquest
The Crusades represent Christianity's most significant example of holy war. Pope Urban II called the First Crusade in 1095, promising spiritual rewards (remission of sins) to those who fought to reclaim Jerusalem. While framed as defensive (protecting Christian pilgrims and Byzantine Christians), the Crusades involved significant violence against Muslims, Jews, and even other Christians, leading most modern Christians to view them as contrary to Jesus's teachings.
Most contemporary Christians reject the concept of holy war entirely, emphasizing Jesus's message of peace and love for enemies. The Catholic Catechism acknowledges legitimate defence but maintains strict conditions that make most modern warfare difficult to justify.
Islamic perspectives on jihad and holy war
Jihad is frequently misunderstood in Western contexts. The term encompasses two main categories:
Greater jihad (al-jihad al-akbar):
- The internal, spiritual struggle against sin and temptation
- Striving to be a better Muslim through prayer, charity, and moral living
- The Prophet Muhammad described this as the most important form of jihad after returning from battle
Lesser jihad (al-jihad al-asghar):
- Physical struggle, including armed defence of Islam
- Permitted only under strict conditions outlined in Islamic law (Shari'ah)
- Must be defensive, not aggressive: "Fight in the cause of Allah those who fight you, but do not transgress limits" (Qur'an 2:190)
Conditions for legitimate lesser jihad include:
- Must be declared by proper religious authority
- Only in defence of Islam, Muslim communities, or when freedom to practice religion is threatened
- Non-combatants (women, children, elderly, religious leaders) must not be harmed
- Minimum necessary force should be used
- Must cease when the enemy seeks peace
- Cannot be fought for territorial gain or personal glory
The Qur'an explicitly states: "If they seek peace, then seek you peace. And trust in Allah" (Qur'an 8:61).
Martyrdom (shahada) in Islam means dying while defending the faith and carries the promise of paradise. However, traditional Islamic scholarship distinguishes this from suicide attacks, which harm innocents and are forbidden: "Do not kill yourselves" (Qur'an 4:29).
Just War Theory and its application today
Just War Theory provides a framework Christians (and others) use to evaluate modern conflicts. It consists of two parts:
Jus ad bellum (right to go to war):
- Just cause — defence against aggression
- Legitimate authority — declared by recognized government
- Right intention — aim is peace, not revenge
- Proportionality — war's benefits must outweigh the harm
- Last resort — all peaceful alternatives exhausted
- Reasonable chance of success — not futile bloodshed
Jus in bello (right conduct during war):
- Discrimination — distinguish between combatants and civilians
- Proportionality — force used must be proportionate to military objective
- No intrinsically evil means — prohibits weapons that cause unnecessary suffering
Modern challenges to Just War Theory:
- Nuclear weapons create disproportionate harm, killing indiscriminately
- Drone warfare raises questions about legitimate authority and discrimination
- Terrorism deliberately targets civilians, violating discrimination principle
- Cyber warfare blurs lines between combatants and civilians
Many Christians argue that modern warfare technology makes satisfying Just War criteria nearly impossible, moving them toward pacifism.
Religion-inspired violence and terrorism
Religious terrorism occurs when individuals or groups use violence against civilians to advance religious or political goals they believe are divinely sanctioned.
Causes and contributing factors:
- Literal interpretation of sacred texts without historical/contextual understanding
- Political grievances framed in religious language (occupation, Western intervention)
- Identity and belonging — extremist groups offer purpose to vulnerable individuals
- Distortion of religious teachings by charismatic leaders for political ends
- Socioeconomic factors — poverty, lack of education, marginalization
Examples of religion-inspired violence:
- 9/11 attacks (2001) — Al-Qaeda justified attacks on religious grounds, though scholars overwhelmingly agree their interpretation violated Islamic teachings on protecting innocents
- Lord's Resistance Army — Joseph Kony's group in Uganda claims Christian motivation but commits atrocities condemned by Christian churches worldwide
- Buddhist violence in Myanmar — nationalist monks have incited violence against Rohingya Muslims, contradicting Buddhism's emphasis on non-harm
Religious responses to terrorism:
Christian responses emphasize:
- Jesus's teaching to "love your enemies" (Matthew 5:44)
- Rejection of violence: "all who draw the sword will die by the sword"
- Work for justice and reconciliation rather than revenge
Islamic responses emphasize:
- Protection of innocent life: "whoever kills a soul... it is as if he had slain mankind entirely" (Qur'an 5:32)
- Condemnation by major Islamic scholars and organizations worldwide
- True jihad requires proper authority and prohibits terrorism
Both religions stress that extremists represent tiny minorities misusing faith for political purposes.
Religious teachings promoting peace
Despite potential for violence, all major religions contain strong peace traditions:
Christianity:
- Sermon on the Mount: "Blessed are the peacemakers"
- Jesus's example of non-violent resistance
- Early church pacifism
- Modern peace movements (Quakers, Mennonites, Catholic Worker Movement)
Islam:
- One of Allah's names is As-Salaam (The Source of Peace)
- Traditional greeting "As-salamu alaykum" (Peace be upon you)
- Emphasis on peace as the natural state; war is exceptional
- Requirement to accept peace offers
Practical peacemaking:
- Interfaith dialogue initiatives
- Religious leaders condemning violence
- Humanitarian work crossing religious boundaries
- Reconciliation programs in conflict zones
Worked examples
Example 1: "Explain two contrasting beliefs in contemporary British society about whether war can ever be justified." [4 marks]
Model answer:
Some Christians believe war can be justified if it meets Just War Theory criteria. They would argue that defending innocent people from aggression, such as stopping genocide, fulfills Jesus's command to love your neighbour and can be the lesser of two evils. War must be declared by legitimate authority, be a last resort, and aim to restore peace rather than seek revenge.
In contrast, Christian pacifists believe war is never justified because Jesus taught "love your enemies" and told Peter to put away his sword. They argue that Just War criteria are impossible to meet with modern weapons that kill civilians indiscriminately, and Christians should follow Jesus's example of non-violent resistance even unto death. Organizations like the Peace Pledge Union represent this view in Britain.
Examiner note: This answer gains full marks by clearly identifying two contrasting positions, explaining the reasoning behind each, and supporting with relevant religious teachings.
Example 2: "Religious believers should never use violence." Evaluate this statement. [15 marks]
Model answer structure:
Arguments supporting the statement:
- Jesus taught love for enemies and non-retaliation (Matthew 5:39, 44)
- Islam protects innocent life: "whoever kills a soul... it is as if he had slain mankind entirely" (Qur'an 5:32)
- Violence contradicts core religious values of compassion and sanctity of life
- Early Christians were pacifists, refusing military service
- Modern warfare's indiscriminate nature makes Just War criteria impossible to meet
- Religious violence has caused immense suffering (Crusades, terrorism)
Arguments against the statement:
- Just War Theory provides moral framework for defensive war to protect innocents
- Lesser jihad permits armed defence when Islam/Muslims are attacked
- Protecting the vulnerable may require force: "Greater love has no one than this: to lay down one's life for one's friends" (John 15:13)
- Police and military personnel can serve justly while holding religious beliefs
- Allowing evil to triumph through inaction may be morally worse than defensive violence
- Bible contains examples of God sanctioning war (Old Testament holy wars)
Conclusion demonstrating evaluation and personal judgment with reasoning
Example 3: "Describe Christian teachings about holy war." [5 marks]
Model answer:
Most Christians today reject the concept of holy war, believing Jesus's teachings emphasize peace and loving enemies. However, Just War Theory developed by St Augustine and St Thomas Aquinas suggests war may be justified when defending against aggression, declared by legitimate authority, and fought with right intention to restore peace. The Crusades represent Christianity's historical example of holy war, where the Pope promised spiritual rewards to those fighting to reclaim the Holy Land, though these are now viewed critically by most Christians. Modern Christian churches emphasize that any justifiable war must protect non-combatants and be a last resort after peaceful solutions fail. Some Christians are absolute pacifists, arguing violence can never be reconciled with Jesus's example.
Common mistakes and how to avoid them
Mistake: Claiming that jihad means "holy war" only, or equating it with terrorism. Correction: Jihad primarily means "struggle" and includes greater jihad (internal spiritual struggle) and lesser jihad (armed defence under strict conditions). The vast majority of Islamic scholarship condemns terrorism as contradicting jihad's rules.
Mistake: Writing that all Christians are pacifist or that Christianity completely prohibits war. Correction: While some Christians are pacifist, Just War Theory represents mainstream Christian thinking that permits defensive war under strict moral conditions. Distinguish between different Christian positions clearly.
Mistake: Confusing Just War Theory criteria or only listing them without explanation. Correction: Learn both jus ad bellum (right to go to war) and jus in bello (right conduct in war). In exam answers, explain how criteria apply to the specific question rather than just listing them.
Mistake: Oversimplifying religious texts as promoting violence without context. Correction: Sacred texts contain passages about both peace and warfare that require interpretation. Show awareness that religious communities debate meanings and that historical context matters.
Mistake: Using the terms "holy war" and "just war" interchangeably. Correction: Holy war means warfare believed commanded by God (like Crusades). Just war refers to theory about when war may be morally justified. They are different concepts with different criteria.
Mistake: Failing to distinguish between religious teachings and actions of extremists. Correction: Make clear that terrorist groups represent tiny minorities who distort religious teachings. Mainstream religious authorities condemn religion-inspired violence.
Exam technique for Issues of Peace and Conflict: holy war and religion-inspired violence
Command word strategies:
"Describe" (5 marks): Provide detailed account with five distinct points or well-developed explanation. Include specific teachings and examples rather than generalities.
"Explain" (4-8 marks): Show understanding of why/how something occurs. Link beliefs to practices or consequences. Use religious terminology and quote/reference sacred texts where possible.
"Evaluate" (15 marks): Present arguments on both sides, supported with religious teachings and reasoning. Reach a justified conclusion that demonstrates your evaluation. Address the specific wording of the statement, not a generic answer about war.
Structure for evaluative questions:
- Brief introduction identifying key issue
- 3-4 arguments supporting the statement with religious teachings
- 3-4 arguments against the statement with religious teachings
- Conclusion weighing arguments and stating justified personal position
Maximizing marks:
- Use specific religious terminology: Just War Theory, jihad, pacifism, martyrdom, proportionality
- Quote/reference sacred texts: Bible passages, Qur'an verses, teachings of religious figures
- Show awareness of diversity: "Some Christians believe... whereas others...", "Traditional Islamic scholarship teaches..."
- Apply to contemporary issues: Refer to modern warfare, terrorism, nuclear weapons to show relevance
Quick revision summary
Holy war is warfare believed commanded by God; Christianity's main example is the Crusades, though Just War Theory (developed by Augustine and Aquinas) provides criteria for morally justifiable defensive war. Islam's concept of jihad includes greater jihad (spiritual struggle) and lesser jihad (armed defence under strict conditions protecting non-combatants). Both Christianity and Islam strongly emphasize peace, with terrorism condemned as violating core teachings about protecting innocent life. Modern challenges include whether Just War criteria can be met with weapons of mass destruction. Religious responses to violence stress peacemaking, reconciliation, and accurate interpretation of sacred texts against extremist distortions.