What you'll learn
Physical training is the planned use of exercise to improve fitness for health or for a particular sport, built on the components of fitness, fitness testing and the principles of training. In AQA GCSE Physical Education (8582) it is part of Paper 1: The human body and movement in physical activity and sport (1 hour 15 minutes, 78 marks, 30% of the GCSE). This guide covers the relationship between health and fitness, the ten components of fitness and how each is tested, the reasons for and limitations of fitness testing, the principles of training (SPORT and FITT), the main types of training and how to calculate training zones, the training seasons, how to prevent injury, and how to plan an effective warm up and cool down.
Key terms and definitions
Health — A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
Fitness — The ability to meet the demands of the environment.
Exercise — A form of physical activity done to maintain or improve health and/or fitness.
Performance — How well a task is completed.
Agility — The ability to move and change direction quickly while keeping control.
Balance — Maintaining the centre of mass over a base of support. Static balance is held still; dynamic balance is kept while moving.
Cardiovascular endurance (aerobic power) — The ability of the heart and lungs to supply oxygen to the working muscles over a long period.
Coordination — The ability to use two or more body parts together smoothly and efficiently.
Flexibility — The range of movement possible at a joint.
Muscular endurance — The ability of a muscle or muscle group to undergo repeated contractions without tiring.
Power (explosive strength, anaerobic power) — The product of strength and speed: strength × speed.
Reaction time — The time taken to start responding to a stimulus.
Strength — The ability to overcome a resistance. Types include maximal, static, dynamic and explosive strength.
Speed — The maximum rate at which a person can move over a distance or in a period of time: distance ÷ time.
Training threshold — The intensity at which exercise brings about an improvement in fitness.
Core concepts
Health and fitness
Health and fitness are linked but different. Poor health, such as an illness, can reduce fitness because a person cannot train. However, a person can be fit and yet unhealthy, for example an athlete with a cold or one who is very stressed. Increasing fitness through exercise usually improves health, and good health makes it easier to train.
Components of fitness and fitness tests
| Component | Test | What the test involves |
|---|---|---|
| Agility | Illinois Agility Test | A timed run around a set course of cones |
| Balance | Stork Stand Test | Standing on one foot, hands on hips, other foot against the knee, rising onto the toes; time held |
| Cardiovascular endurance | Multi-Stage Fitness Test | 20 m shuttle runs in time with bleeps that get faster; level reached |
| Coordination | Wall Toss Test | Throwing a ball against a wall and catching it with the opposite hand, counting catches in 30 seconds |
| Flexibility | Sit and Reach Test | Reaching forward from a sitting position; distance reached in centimetres |
| Muscular endurance | Sit-Up Bleep Test | Sit-ups in time with bleeps; number completed |
| Power | Vertical Jump Test | Difference between standing reach and highest jump mark |
| Reaction time | Ruler Drop Test | Catching a dropped ruler; distance it falls before being caught |
| Strength | Handgrip Dynamometer Test | Squeezing a dynamometer as hard as possible; best of three in kilograms |
| Maximal strength | One Rep Max Test | The heaviest weight that can be lifted once with correct technique |
| Speed | 30 Metre Sprint Test | Time taken to sprint 30 m from a standing start |
Fitness testing: reasons and limitations
Performers test fitness to identify strengths and weaknesses, monitor improvement over time, show a starting level, inform the design of a training programme, compare with national averages (normative data), and motivate and set goals. Testing also gives variety to training.
Tests have limitations. Many are not sport specific and do not replicate the movements or competitive conditions of the sport. Many require maximal effort, which some performers do not give. Results may lack reliability if procedures are not followed exactly each time, if conditions change (such as weather or surface), or if the tester makes timing errors. Test data can be quantitative (numbers, such as a time) or qualitative (descriptions or opinions), and good tests produce valid, reliable quantitative data.
Principles of training
The main principles are summed up as SPORT:
- Specificity — training must match the requirements of the activity, its movements, muscles and energy systems.
- Progressive overload — gradually increasing the training load so the body adapts, without overtraining or injury.
- Reversibility — fitness gains are lost if training stops or is reduced, for example during injury.
- Tedium — training must be varied to avoid boredom.
Overload can be applied using FITT: Frequency (how often), Intensity (how hard), Time (how long) and Type (the kind of training).
Types of training
- Circuit training — a series of exercise stations completed in turn; can target several components and be adapted to any sport.
- Continuous training — steady exercise without rest for at least 20 minutes, such as running, swimming or cycling; develops cardiovascular endurance.
- Fartlek training — "speed play", varying speed, terrain and intensity; suits games players.
- Interval training — periods of hard work separated by rest or recovery; suits stop-start sports and can be aerobic or anaerobic.
- Plyometric training — explosive jumping exercises such as bounding and depth jumps; develops power.
- Static stretching — holding a stretch for up to 30 seconds without bouncing; develops flexibility.
- Weight or resistance training — using weights to provide resistance, set as a percentage of the performer's one rep max. High weight and low repetitions (above 70% of one rep max, about three sets of 4–8 reps) develops strength; low weight and high repetitions (below 70% of one rep max, about three sets of 12–15 reps) develops muscular endurance.
High-altitude training (usually above 2,000 m) exposes the body to less oxygen, so it produces more red blood cells, which helps endurance performers when they return to sea level. However, the benefit is lost within weeks, it is expensive, performers may get altitude sickness and it is hard to train at normal intensity.
Training zones
Maximum heart rate is estimated as 220 − age. The aerobic training zone is 60–80% of maximum heart rate, and the anaerobic training zone is 80–90%. Training within the right zone ensures the training threshold is reached and the correct energy system is developed.
Training seasons
- Pre-season (preparation) — building general aerobic fitness and the specific fitness the sport needs.
- Competition (playing) season — maintaining fitness and working on specific skills while playing matches.
- Post-season (transition) — rest and light aerobic work to recover while avoiding too much reversibility.
Preventing injury
Injury can be prevented by completing a PAR-Q (a questionnaire that checks readiness to exercise), warming up, using correct clothing and equipment, following the rules, taping or bracing joints, using correct technique, applying progressive overload rather than sudden increases, and avoiding overtraining.
Warm up and cool down
A warm up has three main phases: a pulse raiser (gradual activity such as jogging to raise heart rate and body temperature), stretching of the muscles to be used, and skill-based practices related to the activity, followed by mental preparation. It increases blood flow and oxygen to the muscles, makes muscles more pliable, reduces injury risk and prepares the performer mentally.
A cool down uses gentle exercise to gradually lower heart rate and breathing, followed by stretching. It helps remove lactic acid, prevents blood pooling and reduces stiffness and delayed onset of muscle soreness (DOMS).
Worked examples
Example 1: Calculating training zones
A 16-year-old performer has a maximum heart rate of 220 − 16 = 204 bpm. Their aerobic zone is 60–80% of 204: 0.6 × 204 = 122.4 and 0.8 × 204 = 163.2, so about 122–163 bpm. Their anaerobic zone is 80–90%: 0.8 × 204 = 163.2 and 0.9 × 204 = 183.6, so about 163–184 bpm.
Example 2: Applying progressive overload with FITT
A runner currently runs three times a week for 20 minutes. Over ten weeks they could add a fourth session (frequency), run part of each session faster (intensity) or extend runs to 30 minutes (time). Increases should be small and steady, so the body adapts without injury.
Example 3: Choosing a training type
A hockey player needs to sprint, recover and sprint again throughout a match. Interval training or Fartlek training best matches these stop-start demands. Continuous training would develop the aerobic base but would not replicate the changes of pace.
Example 4: Evaluating a fitness test
The Multi-Stage Fitness Test is cheap and easy for a large group, and gives normative data for comparison. However, it requires maximal effort, the performer's motivation affects results, and the straight-line shuttle run does not match the movements of sports such as swimming or cycling.
Common mistakes and how to avoid them
Do not confuse muscular endurance with cardiovascular endurance. One is about a muscle repeating contractions; the other is about the heart and lungs supplying oxygen.
Do not write power = strength + speed. Power is strength × speed.
Do not mix up reversibility (losing fitness) with tedium (boredom).
Do not calculate training zones from resting heart rate. Use maximum heart rate = 220 − age, then take the percentages.
Do not name the wrong test: the Stork Stand measures balance, the Wall Toss coordination and the Ruler Drop reaction time.
Exam technique for "Physical training"
When asked to justify a component of fitness for a sport, link it to a specific moment in that sport, such as "reaction time lets a sprinter leave the blocks quickly". For training methods, name the method, say which component it develops and explain why it suits the performer. Show all working for training-zone calculations. Data questions often give fitness test results against normative tables: compare the performer's score with the table, state their rating, and suggest suitable training.
Quick revision summary
- Health is complete physical, mental and social well-being; fitness is meeting the demands of the environment.
- Ten components: agility, balance, cardiovascular endurance, coordination, flexibility, muscular endurance, power, reaction time, strength, speed.
- Tests include the Illinois Agility, Stork Stand, Multi-Stage Fitness, Wall Toss, Sit and Reach, Vertical Jump, Ruler Drop and Handgrip Dynamometer.
- SPORT: specificity, progressive overload, reversibility, tedium. FITT: frequency, intensity, time, type.
- Training types: circuit, continuous, Fartlek, interval, plyometric, static stretching, weight.
- Maximum heart rate = 220 − age; aerobic zone 60–80%, anaerobic zone 80–90%.
- Seasons: pre-season, competition, post-season.
- Warm up: pulse raiser, stretching, skill-based practice. Cool down: gentle exercise and stretching.