What you'll learn
Changing cities is about why more and more people live in urban areas, how cities change over time, and the challenges and opportunities this brings. This guide covers what you need for Edexcel GCSE Geography: global urbanisation trends and their causes, the differences between cities in developed and developing countries, how a UK city has changed through deindustrialisation, suburbanisation, counter-urbanisation and regeneration, issues of inequality, housing, transport and sustainability, and the challenges and opportunities of rapid growth in a developing or emerging city, using Mumbai as the main example. It also looks at strategies for making cities more sustainable.
Questions often ask you to describe urbanisation trends from graphs, explain causes of urban change, discuss the challenges of rapid growth, and evaluate strategies to improve cities. Use specific places and evidence.
Key terms and definitions
Urbanisation — An increase in the proportion of people living in towns and cities.
Megacity — A city with a population of over 10 million.
Rural–urban migration — The movement of people from the countryside to cities.
Natural increase — Population growth when the birth rate exceeds the death rate.
Push factors — Reasons that drive people away from an area.
Pull factors — Reasons that attract people to an area.
Suburbanisation — The movement of people from city centres to the edges of cities.
Counter-urbanisation — The movement of people out of cities to rural areas.
Deindustrialisation — The decline of manufacturing industry in an area.
Regeneration — Improving a run-down area through investment in housing, jobs and the environment.
Informal settlement (slum) — An area of unplanned, often illegal, housing with poor services.
Informal economy — Work that is not officially recorded, taxed or regulated.
Sustainable city — A city that meets the needs of its people now without damaging the environment or the ability of future generations to meet their needs.
Core concepts
Global urbanisation
More than half of the world's population now lives in urban areas, and the proportion continues to rise. Urbanisation is fastest in developing and emerging countries, particularly in Africa and Asia, while developed countries such as the UK are already highly urbanised and growing slowly. The number of megacities has grown rapidly; most new megacities are in developing and emerging countries.
Causes of urbanisation:
- Rural–urban migration, driven by push factors (lack of jobs, poor services, low farm incomes, drought, conflict) and pull factors (jobs in factories and services, better schools and healthcare, higher wages, perceived better quality of life).
- Natural increase, because migrants are often young adults who have children in the city, and better healthcare lowers death rates.
Cities in developed and developing countries
In developed countries, cities often have a central business district (CBD), an inner city with older housing, and suburbs, with people moving outwards over time. In developing countries, the wealthiest often live near the centre, while the poorest live in informal settlements on the edges or on unsafe land, such as near railways or on steep slopes.
Changing UK cities
UK cities have changed significantly over the last century.
Deindustrialisation. From the 1960s onwards, many traditional industries such as shipbuilding, steel, textiles and manufacturing declined because of competition from cheaper producers abroad, mechanisation and changing demand. Inner-city areas lost jobs, leading to unemployment, empty factories and run-down neighbourhoods.
Suburbanisation. Improved transport, rising car ownership and the desire for more space encouraged people to move to new housing estates in the suburbs.
Counter-urbanisation. Some people moved further out to villages and small towns, commuting to work or working from home, seeking a quieter environment.
Re-urbanisation and regeneration. In recent decades, many city centres have seen people move back, attracted by new apartments, jobs in services and lifestyle amenities. Regeneration projects have transformed old industrial areas into housing, offices, shops and leisure spaces — for example, former docklands converted into mixed-use developments.
Issues in UK cities
- Inequality — wide differences in income, health, education and life expectancy between areas of the same city.
- Housing — high demand raises prices and rents; there are shortages of affordable housing, and debates about building on greenfield sites (undeveloped land) versus brownfield sites (previously developed land).
- Transport — congestion and air pollution; solutions include improved public transport, cycle lanes, trams and congestion charges.
- Retail change — the growth of online shopping and out-of-town retail parks has led to empty shops in some town centres.
- Green space — parks improve wellbeing and reduce flood risk and heat, but are under pressure from development.
Mumbai: a rapidly growing city
Mumbai is a megacity on India's west coast and one of the country's main economic centres. It is home to the country's largest port, financial institutions, the stock exchange and the Bollywood film industry. Its population has grown rapidly through migration from rural India and natural increase.
Opportunities:
- jobs in manufacturing, services, finance, IT and entertainment;
- better access to education and healthcare than in many rural areas;
- a large informal economy offering work to new arrivals, such as street selling and recycling.
Challenges:
- Housing — a large share of the population lives in informal settlements. Dharavi, one of Asia's largest, is densely packed, with many people living in small single-room homes.
- Services — limited clean water, sanitation and waste collection in informal areas lead to disease.
- Transport — overcrowded trains and severe road congestion.
- Pollution — air and water pollution from traffic, industry and waste.
- Informal work — insecure jobs, low pay, no benefits and sometimes unsafe conditions.
Dharavi also shows the resilience of informal settlements: it contains thousands of small businesses, including pottery, leather goods, textiles and recycling, generating significant income.
Improving life in developing cities
- Upgrading informal settlements ("self-help" or in-situ upgrading) — providing water, sanitation, electricity and paved paths, and giving residents land rights so they invest in their homes.
- Redevelopment schemes — replacing informal housing with apartment blocks; these can improve conditions but may break up communities and businesses.
- Infrastructure — new rail, metro and road links to reduce congestion.
- Waste management and recycling schemes, often building on the informal economy.
Sustainable cities
Strategies to make cities more sustainable include:
- improving public transport, cycling and walking routes;
- using renewable energy and energy-efficient buildings;
- recycling and reducing waste;
- creating green spaces and green roofs;
- building on brownfield sites to protect the countryside;
- involving local communities in decisions;
- providing affordable housing near jobs.
A UK example of regeneration: London Docklands
London's Docklands show the full cycle of urban change. For centuries the docks were among the busiest in the world, employing many thousands of people. From the 1960s, ships grew too large for the docks and goods moved in containers to deep-water ports downstream, so the docks closed one after another by the early 1980s. The area suffered high unemployment, derelict warehouses, contaminated land and poor transport links — a clear example of deindustrialisation.
In 1981 the government set up the London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) to regenerate the area, encouraging private investment. Changes included:
- Canary Wharf, a major financial and business district with skyscraper offices;
- new transport, including the Docklands Light Railway, the Jubilee line extension and London City Airport;
- new housing, shops, leisure facilities and converted warehouses.
Successes: tens of thousands of new jobs, a transformed environment, and much better transport. Criticisms: many new jobs in finance required skills that former dock workers lacked; new housing was often too expensive for existing residents, contributing to gentrification; and long-standing communities felt that the benefits went mainly to newcomers. Docklands therefore illustrates both the opportunities of regeneration and the importance of including local people.
The rural–urban fringe
At the edge of UK cities, the rural–urban fringe is under pressure from new housing, retail parks, business parks and roads. Green belts — protected zones of countryside around cities — aim to stop urban sprawl, protect farmland and keep towns separate. Building on brownfield land within cities helps protect the green belt but can be more expensive because sites may need decontaminating.
Worked examples
Example 1: Causes of urbanisation
Explain two reasons for rapid urbanisation in developing countries. (4 marks)
Answer: Rural–urban migration (1): people move to cities for jobs and better services, pushed by low farm incomes (1). Natural increase (1): many migrants are young adults who have children in the city, and improved healthcare lowers death rates (1).
Example 2: Challenges in Mumbai
Describe two challenges for people living in informal settlements in Mumbai. (4 marks)
Answer: Poor sanitation (1): many homes have no toilets, so diseases spread easily (1). Overcrowding (1): families live in small single rooms, with little space and poor ventilation (1).
Example 3: Evaluating regeneration
Assess the benefits and problems of regenerating a former industrial area of a UK city.
Answer: Regeneration creates jobs, new housing and leisure facilities, improves the environment and attracts investment. However, new housing may be too expensive for existing residents, who may be forced out (gentrification), and jobs may not suit local people's skills. It is most successful when it includes affordable housing and training for local residents.
Common mistakes and how to avoid them
- Confusing urbanisation with urban growth. Urbanisation is an increase in the proportion living in cities.
- Describing informal settlements only negatively. Mention opportunities and the informal economy.
- Mixing up suburbanisation and counter-urbanisation.
- Forgetting specific place detail in case study answers.
- Listing sustainable strategies without explaining how they help.
Exam technique for "Changing Cities"
- When describing graphs, quote figures and trends.
- Use named places, such as Mumbai and Dharavi, and your UK city case study.
- In evaluations, consider different groups of people and social, economic and environmental effects.
- End extended answers with a justified conclusion.
Quick revision summary
- Over half the world's population is urban; growth is fastest in developing and emerging countries.
- Causes: rural–urban migration (push and pull factors) and natural increase.
- UK cities: deindustrialisation, suburbanisation, counter-urbanisation, re-urbanisation and regeneration.
- UK issues: inequality, housing, transport, retail change, green space.
- Mumbai: opportunities (jobs, services, informal economy) and challenges (informal housing, sanitation, transport, pollution).
- Improvements: settlement upgrading, redevelopment, infrastructure, waste schemes.
- Sustainable cities: transport, renewables, recycling, green space, brownfield building, community involvement.