Depth Study: Germany, 1918–45

What you'll learn

This depth study examines Germany's transformation from defeat in 1918 through the turbulent Weimar Republic, Hitler's rise to power, and the establishment of a totalitarian Nazi state. You'll analyse the political, economic and social factors that enabled the Nazi Party to dominate Germany and understand how Hitler consolidated his dictatorship between 1933 and 1945.

Key terms and definitions

Treaty of Versailles — The 1919 peace settlement that Germany was forced to sign after World War One, imposing severe territorial losses, military restrictions, war guilt and £6.6 billion in reparations.

Weimar Republic — Germany's democratic government from 1919 to 1933, named after the city where its constitution was written, characterised by political instability and economic crises.

Hyperinflation — The catastrophic economic collapse of 1923 when the German mark became worthless; a loaf of bread cost billions of marks as the government printed money to pay reparations.

Enabling Act — The March 1933 law that gave Hitler dictatorial powers to pass laws without the Reichstag's approval for four years, effectively destroying democracy.

Gleichschaltung — The Nazi policy of 'coordination' or 'bringing into line', which meant bringing all aspects of German society under Nazi control between 1933 and 1934.

SS (Schutzstaffel) — The elite Nazi paramilitary organisation led by Heinrich Himmler, responsible for internal security, the concentration camp system and implementing racial policy.

Kristallnacht — 'Night of Broken Glass' on 9-10 November 1938, when Nazi stormtroopers and civilians destroyed Jewish shops, synagogues and homes across Germany, marking an escalation in anti-Semitic persecution.

Lebensraum — Hitler's concept of 'living space', the belief that Germany needed to expand eastward to gain territory for the German people.

Core concepts

The Weimar Republic 1918-1929

Origins and early challenges

The Weimar Republic was born from Germany's defeat in World War One. Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated on 9 November 1918, and Friedrich Ebert's new government signed the armistice two days later. Many Germans felt betrayed by the 'November Criminals' who accepted defeat, creating the 'stab-in-the-back' myth — the false belief that undefeated German forces had been betrayed by politicians at home.

The Treaty of Versailles in June 1919 devastated German national pride:

• Germany lost 13% of its territory including Alsace-Lorraine, the Polish Corridor and all colonies
• The army was limited to 100,000 men with no air force, submarines or tanks
• Article 231 forced Germany to accept sole responsibility for causing the war
• Reparations eventually set at £6.6 billion in 1921

Early threats to the Republic included:

• Spartacist Uprising (January 1919): Communist revolutionaries led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht attempted to seize power in Berlin; crushed by the Freikorps
• Kapp Putsch (March 1920): Right-wing Freikorps units tried to overthrow the government; defeated by a general strike of Berlin workers
• French occupation of the Ruhr (1923): When Germany defaulted on reparations, France and Belgium occupied Germany's industrial heartland

Hyperinflation crisis 1923

The German government's policy of passive resistance to the Ruhr occupation required paying striking workers, leading to catastrophic hyperinflation. The middle classes saw their savings become worthless overnight. A kilogram of bread that cost 163 marks in 1922 cost 1,500,000 marks by September 1923 and 201,000,000,000 marks by November.

Gustav Stresemann, appointed Chancellor in August 1923, introduced a new currency (the Rentenmark) and negotiated the Dawes Plan (1924) which restructured reparations payments and secured American loans for German recovery.

The 'Golden Years' 1924-1929

Stresemann's policies as Foreign Minister brought stability:

• Economic recovery through American investment
• Locarno Treaties (1925) improved relations with France and Britain
• Germany joined the League of Nations (1926)
• Young Plan (1929) reduced total reparations

However, underlying weaknesses remained:

• Democratic institutions were fragile; many Germans remained hostile to democracy
• The economy depended heavily on American loans
• Extremist parties on both left and right continued to operate
• Agricultural depression affected farmers throughout this period

The rise of the Nazi Party 1919-1933

Early Nazi Party development

Adolf Hitler joined the German Workers' Party in 1919, quickly becoming its leader and renaming it the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP or Nazi Party) in 1920. The Twenty-Five Point Programme combined nationalist demands (overthrowing Versailles) with socialist policies (nationalisation, profit-sharing) and anti-Semitism.

Key early features:

• The SA (Sturmabteilung or 'brownshirts') provided muscle and fought street battles with communists
• The swastika symbol and 'Heil Hitler' salute created visual identity
• Hitler proved to be a charismatic and powerful public speaker

Munich Putsch 1923

On 8-9 November 1923, Hitler attempted to seize power in Munich, inspired by Mussolini's 1922 March on Rome. The putsch failed; 16 Nazis were killed and Hitler was arrested. However, his trial gave him national publicity and his subsequent five-year sentence (he served only nine months) allowed him to write Mein Kampf, outlining his ideology.

The Munich Putsch taught Hitler to pursue power through legal, democratic means rather than force.

Impact of the Depression 1929-1933

The Wall Street Crash (October 1929) devastated Germany's loan-dependent economy:

• American loans were recalled
• Industrial production collapsed
• Unemployment rose from 1.4 million (1928) to 6 million (1932)
• The middle class feared becoming impoverished; workers faced starvation

Nazi electoral support surged:

Year	Reichstag seats	Vote percentage
1928	12	2.6%
1930	107	18.3%
July 1932	230	37.4%
November 1932	196	33.1%
March 1933	288	43.9%

Reasons for Nazi success

Economic factors: The Depression created mass unemployment and poverty. Hitler promised 'work and bread', public works programmes and economic recovery.

Political factors: Weimar governments appeared weak and ineffective. Political violence increased as SA fought communists in the streets. Many Germans craved strong leadership.

Appeal of Nazi policies:

• Overturning the Treaty of Versailles appealed to nationalist sentiment
• Anti-communism attracted middle and upper-class support
• Anti-Semitism provided scapegoats for Germany's problems

Nazi propaganda: Joseph Goebbels masterminded sophisticated campaigns using posters, rallies, radio and film. Hitler was presented as Germany's saviour.

Role of Hitler: His powerful oratory, determination and image as a strong leader contrasted with weak democratic politicians.

Support from elites: Industrialists provided funding; conservative politicians believed they could control Hitler; President Hindenburg was persuaded to appoint Hitler as Chancellor on 30 January 1933.

Nazi dictatorship 1933-1939

Consolidation of power 1933-1934

Hitler moved rapidly to establish totalitarian control:

Reichstag Fire (27 February 1933): A Dutch communist was blamed for burning down parliament. Hitler persuaded Hindenburg to issue the Decree for the Protection of People and State, suspending civil liberties and allowing arrest of communist opponents.

March 1933 election: Despite SA intimidation, Nazis won only 43.9%. Hitler needed the Centre Party's support to pass the Enabling Act.

Enabling Act (23 March 1933): Passed 444-94 (only SPD opposed), it gave Hitler power to make laws without the Reichstag for four years. Democracy was effectively dead.

Gleichschaltung: All aspects of German life were 'coordinated':

• Trade unions banned (May 1933), replaced by German Labour Front
• All political parties except the NSDAP banned (July 1933)
• State governments abolished (1934)
• Youth organisations absorbed into Hitler Youth
• Churches pressured through the Reich Church and Concordat with the Vatican

Night of the Long Knives (30 June 1934): Hitler ordered the SS to murder SA leader Ernst Röhm and up to 400 others. This removed the SA as a political force, pleased the army by eliminating a rival, and demonstrated Hitler's ruthlessness.

When Hindenburg died (August 1934), Hitler combined the roles of Chancellor and President, becoming Führer (leader). The army swore a personal oath of loyalty to Hitler.

The police state

The Nazi regime maintained control through terror and surveillance:

• Gestapo (secret state police) had powers to arrest and imprison without trial
• SS controlled the concentration camp system initially for political prisoners
• Block wardens spied on neighbours
• Courts and judges were brought under Nazi control
• Concentration camps like Dachau (1933) terrorised opponents

Economic policy

Hjalmar Schacht (Economics Minister 1934-1937) introduced the New Plan:

• Government investment in infrastructure (autobahns)
• Rearmament programmes creating jobs
• Self-sufficiency (autarky) to reduce imports
• Mefo bills (credit notes) to disguise rearmament spending

Unemployment fell from 6 million (1933) to 0.3 million (1939). However, workers faced longer hours, frozen wages and no trade unions. The economy was geared entirely toward war preparation.

Social policy and control

Propaganda: Goebbels controlled all media, art and culture through the Reich Chamber of Culture. Rallies like the annual Nuremberg Rally showcased Nazi power. Cheap radios ensured Hitler's message reached every home.

Education: Teachers joined the Nazi Teachers' League. Curriculum emphasised racial science, Nazi ideology and physical education. Textbooks were rewritten to glorify Germany and Hitler.

Youth movements: Hitler Youth (boys) and League of German Maidens (girls) indoctrinated children with Nazi values. Membership became compulsory in 1939.

Role of women: Nazi ideology demanded women focus on 'Kinder, Küche, Kirche' (children, kitchen, church). The Law for the Encouragement of Marriage (1933) provided loans to married couples if the wife left work. Medals were awarded to women who had many children.

Racial policy and persecution

Anti-Semitism was central to Nazi ideology:

Nuremberg Laws (1935):

• Reich Citizenship Law stripped Jews of German citizenship
• Law for the Protection of German Blood banned marriage between Jews and 'Aryans'

Kristallnacht (9-10 November 1938): Following the assassination of a German diplomat in Paris, Nazi propaganda triggered coordinated attacks on Jewish property. 91 Jews were killed, 30,000 arrested, hundreds of synagogues burned. Jews were then fined one billion marks for the damage.

Aryanisation: Jewish businesses were confiscated. Jews were progressively excluded from professions, education and public life.

Other persecuted groups included Roma, disabled people (subject to forced sterilisation and later euthanasia in the T4 programme), homosexuals and political opponents.

Germany at war 1939-1945

Nazi foreign policy aims

Hitler's objectives included:

• Destroying the Treaty of Versailles
• Rearmament and military expansion
• Lebensraum (living space) in Eastern Europe
• Uniting all German-speaking peoples in a Greater Germany

Early successes demonstrated Western appeasement:

• Rearmament announced (1935)
• Remilitarisation of the Rhineland (1936)
• Anschluss with Austria (March 1938)
• Sudetenland gained at Munich Conference (September 1938)
• Annexation of Czechoslovakia (March 1939)

Impact of war on Germany

Initially, Blitzkrieg victories (Poland 1939, France 1940) brought euphoria and minimal impact on civilians. However, after the failed invasion of the USSR (Operation Barbarossa, June 1941) and declaration of war on the USA (December 1941), total war became necessary.

Total war measures:

• Rationing intensified
• Women conscripted into war work
• Albert Speer (Armaments Minister from 1942) reorganised production
• Slave labour from concentration camps and occupied territories

Strategic bombing: Allied bombing destroyed German cities. Hamburg (1943) and Dresden (1945) suffered devastating firestorms. Civilian morale remained surprisingly resilient.

Opposition: Despite the police state, opposition existed:

• Edelweiss Pirates (working-class youth groups)
• White Rose (student movement in Munich)
• Stauffenberg's July 1944 bomb plot (attempt to assassinate Hitler)

All opposition was brutally suppressed.

The Holocaust

The 'Final Solution' — the systematic murder of European Jews — was decided at the Wannsee Conference (January 1942). Six extermination camps were built in occupied Poland (Auschwitz-Birkenau, Treblinka, Sobibor, Belzec, Chelmno, Majdanek). By 1945, approximately six million Jews had been murdered alongside millions of Roma, Soviet prisoners and others deemed 'undesirable'.

Germany surrendered unconditionally on 8 May 1945, one week after Hitler's suicide.

Worked examples

Question 1: Give two things you can infer from Source A about opposition to the Weimar Republic in 1923. (4 marks)

Source A: A photograph showing French troops in the Ruhr industrial area, with German workers standing idle.

Model answer:

One inference is that the French occupation of the Ruhr damaged the German economy (1). This is suggested by the German workers standing idle, which implies factories were closed during the passive resistance campaign (1).

A second inference is that the Weimar government faced humiliation from foreign powers (1). This is shown by foreign troops occupying German territory, which would have angered nationalists who blamed the government for accepting the Treaty of Versailles (1).

Mark scheme guidance: Award 1 mark for each valid inference (maximum 2) and 1 mark for each piece of support from the source (maximum 2). Total: 4 marks.

Question 2: Explain why Hitler was able to become Chancellor in January 1933. (12 marks)

Model answer structure:

Introduction: Briefly identify 2-3 main factors (e.g., economic depression, political intrigue, Nazi electoral success).

Paragraph 1 — Economic Depression: The Wall Street Crash devastated Germany's economy, with unemployment reaching 6 million by 1932. This created desperation among workers and fear among the middle classes, making Hitler's promises of 'work and bread' attractive. The Depression discredited democratic politicians who appeared unable to solve the crisis, whilst Hitler presented himself as a strong alternative leader.

Paragraph 2 — Political intrigue: Conservative politicians like von Papen believed they could control Hitler whilst using his popularity. Von Papen persuaded the ageing President Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as Chancellor on 30 January 1933, with only three Nazis in the cabinet. They fatally underestimated Hitler's determination to seize total power.

Paragraph 3 — Nazi electoral success: The Nazi Party increased support from 2.6% (1928) to 37.4% (July 1932) through Goebbels' sophisticated propaganda and Hitler's powerful oratory. Although support fell slightly to 33.1% in November 1932, the Nazis remained the largest party in the Reichstag, making them impossible to ignore. Hitler exploited the democratic system to gain legitimacy before destroying it.

Conclusion: Link factors together. The Depression created the conditions for extremism, Nazi campaigns exploited public fear, and conservative politicians made the fatal error of appointing Hitler, believing they could manipulate him.

Mark scheme guidance: Level 3 (9-12 marks) requires explanation of multiple causes with clear links between them and a supported judgement.

Question 3: 'The main reason the Nazi regime was able to maintain control between 1933 and 1939 was propaganda.' How far do you agree? (16 marks + 4 SPaG)

Model answer structure:

Introduction: State your line of argument (e.g., propaganda was important but terror was equally/more significant).

Paragraph supporting the statement: Propaganda was crucial in maintaining control. Goebbels controlled all media, ensuring only pro-Nazi messages reached the public. The 1936 Olympics showcased Nazi achievements internationally. Mass rallies like Nuremberg created emotional loyalty to Hitler, who was presented as Germany's saviour. Cheap radios meant Hitler's speeches reached every home. Education and youth movements indoctrinated the next generation. This created genuine popular support, not just compliance through fear.

Paragraph(s) challenging the statement: However, terror was equally important. The Gestapo arrested opponents without trial, creating a climate of fear. The SS ran concentration camps like Dachau for political prisoners. The Night of the Long Knives (1934) demonstrated Hitler's ruthlessness. Block wardens spied on neighbours. This police state meant opposition was extremely dangerous, forcing compliance even from those who disliked the regime.

Economic policy also maintained control. Unemployment fell from 6 million to 0.3 million, creating genuine gratitude. Autobahn construction and rearmament provided jobs. Many Germans benefited materially from Nazi rule, reducing motivation to oppose it.

Conclusion: Weigh up the factors. Propaganda created willing support and legitimacy, but terror ensured compliance from those unmoved by propaganda. Both were necessary; propaganda alone would not have prevented opposition, whilst terror alone would have made the regime vulnerable. Economic success reinforced both. Therefore, whilst propaganda was important, it worked most effectively alongside the police state and economic recovery.

Mark scheme guidance: Level 4 (13-16 marks) requires balanced analysis of multiple factors, evaluation of their relative importance, and a sustained judgement supported by accurate knowledge. Award SPaG marks separately (0-4).

Common mistakes and how to avoid them

• Confusing chronology: Students mix up events from different periods (e.g., placing hyperinflation in the 1930s). Create a timeline to fix key dates: 1918 armistice, 1919 Treaty of Versailles, 1923 hyperinflation/Munich Putsch, 1929 Depression, 1933 Hitler becomes Chancellor, 1934 Night of Long Knives, 1938 Kristallnacht, 1939 war begins.

• Describing rather than explaining: Avoid just narrating events. Always link causes to consequences using connectives like 'therefore', 'consequently', 'this led to', 'as a result'. For example, don't just state unemployment rose; explain how this increased Nazi support because desperate workers believed Hitler's promises.

• Ignoring the question focus: If asked about opposition, don't write everything you know about the Nazi regime. Stay focused on the specific question asked. Underline key words in the question.

• Lack of specific evidence: Avoid vague statements like "many people supported Hitler." Use precise facts: "Nazi support rose from 2.6% in 1928 to 37.4% in July 1932, making them the Reichstag's largest party."

• One-sided answers to 'How far' questions: These require balance. Discuss arguments for and against the statement, then reach a judgement. Structure: introduction stating your view, paragraph(s) agreeing, paragraph(s) disagreeing, conclusion weighing up the evidence.

• Forgetting about source provenance: When analysing sources, consider who created it, when, why and for whom. A Nazi propaganda poster from 1933 has different reliability than a photograph or a historian's account.

Exam technique for "Depth Study: Germany, 1918–45"

• Command words matter: 'Give' requires brief points with evidence. 'Explain' requires causes/consequences with detailed links. 'How far do you agree' requires balanced evaluation with a sustained judgement. Allocate time proportionally: approximately 1 minute per mark.

• Use the PEE structure (Point, Evidence, Explanation) for medium-length answers. For 16-mark essays, use PEEL (Point, Evidence, Explain, Link to question). Always return to the question in each paragraph.

• Manage your time ruthlessly: The depth study is one part of Paper 1. Know exactly how long you have for each question type. Don't spend 25 minutes on an 8-mark question. If running out of time, write your conclusion even if brief—it may gain marks for judgement.

• Practise source skills separately: Question (a) tests inference (what can you work out from the source beyond what it literally says). Question (b) typically tests explanation. Question (c) asks you to evaluate how useful/reliable a source is—remember to discuss both content (what it shows) and provenance (who created it, when, why). Question (d) is the essay, requiring you to evaluate interpretations or reach a judgement.

Quick revision summary

Germany 1918-45 encompasses three distinct periods: the troubled Weimar Republic (1918-1933) faced the Treaty of Versailles, hyperinflation and political extremism; Hitler's rise to power exploited the Depression's economic devastation and democratic weaknesses; the Nazi dictatorship (1933-1945) used terror, propaganda and popular policies to establish totalitarian control. Key features included Gleichschaltung, anti-Semitic persecution culminating in the Holocaust, rearmament and expansionist foreign policy leading to World War Two. Understanding causation, change and continuity across these periods is essential for exam success.