Philosophical and Ethical Themes: Life and Death Issues

What you'll learn

This guide covers the key philosophical and ethical themes relating to life and death required for WJEC GCSE Religious Studies. You will examine religious and non-religious perspectives on abortion, euthanasia, the afterlife, and beliefs about death. These topics require you to understand different viewpoints, evaluate arguments, and apply religious teachings to contemporary ethical dilemmas.

Key terms and definitions

Abortion — the deliberate termination of a human pregnancy, most often performed during the first 28 weeks

Euthanasia — the act of deliberately ending a person's life to relieve suffering (from Greek meaning 'good death')

Sanctity of life — the belief that life is sacred or holy because it is created by God and therefore has intrinsic value

Quality of life — a measure of fulfilment or satisfaction in life, often used in debates about whether life is worth living

Pro-choice — the belief that a woman has the right to choose whether to have an abortion

Pro-life — the belief that abortion is morally wrong and that the unborn child's right to life should be protected

Resurrection — the belief that after death the body will be raised to life again, particularly important in Christianity

Reincarnation — the belief that after death the soul is reborn into a new body, central to Hindu and Buddhist teachings

Core concepts

Abortion: Religious and secular perspectives

The abortion debate centres on when life begins and who has rights over the unborn child.

Christian views on abortion:

Most Christians oppose abortion based on the sanctity of life principle:

• Roman Catholics consider abortion always wrong, teaching that life begins at conception
• The Catholic Church permits no exceptions, even in cases of rape or risk to the mother
• Biblical support includes Psalm 139:13 "You knit me together in my mother's womb"
• Jeremiah 1:5 suggests God knows people before birth: "Before I formed you in the womb I knew you"
• Some liberal Christians permit abortion in extreme circumstances (rape, severe disability, danger to mother)
• They emphasize situation ethics and Jesus's teaching on compassion

Buddhist perspectives:

• The First Precept prohibits taking life, suggesting opposition to abortion
• Life begins at conception when consciousness enters the embryo
• Abortion creates negative karma for those involved
• However, Buddhism emphasizes compassion — some Buddhists accept abortion if continuing pregnancy causes greater suffering
• The Dalai Lama has stated abortion may be acceptable in certain circumstances

Secular arguments:

Pro-choice supporters argue:

• Women have autonomy over their own bodies
• The foetus is not a person until viable (around 24 weeks)
• Abortion should be available in cases of rape, severe disability, or risk to mother's health
• Unwanted children may suffer poor quality of life

Pro-life secular arguments include:

• The foetus has unique DNA from conception and is therefore a separate human
• Adoption is an alternative to abortion
• Scientific evidence shows development begins immediately after conception

UK legal position:

The 1967 Abortion Act (amended 1990) permits abortion up to 24 weeks if:

• Continuing pregnancy risks the mother's physical or mental health
• There is risk to existing children
• The child would be born with severe disabilities
• Abortion after 24 weeks is only permitted if the mother's life is at serious risk

Euthanasia: Types and religious responses

Types of euthanasia:

• Voluntary euthanasia — person requests their life be ended
• Non-voluntary euthanasia — person cannot make decision (unconscious/severely disabled) so others decide
• Assisted suicide — person is given means to end their own life
• Active euthanasia — deliberate action taken to end life (lethal injection)
• Passive euthanasia — withdrawing treatment to allow natural death

Christian teachings:

Most Christians oppose euthanasia:

• Life is sacred and only God should decide when it ends
• Exodus 20:13 commands "You shall not murder"
• Suffering has purpose and can bring spiritual growth
• Hospice care provides dignified alternative (founded by Christian Dame Cicely Saunders)
• Roman Catholic Church absolutely forbids euthanasia but permits withdrawing extraordinary treatment
• Some liberal Christians support euthanasia as compassionate response to unbearable suffering
• They emphasize Jesus's teaching to "love your neighbour" and relieve suffering

Buddhist views:

• First Precept suggests opposition to euthanasia
• Intentionally ending life generates severe negative karma
• Dying process is spiritually important for achieving good rebirth
• However, compassion is paramount — some Buddhists accept euthanasia to end extreme suffering
• Intention matters: if motivated by compassion rather than selfishness, karma may be less negative

Quality of life arguments:

Supporters of euthanasia argue:

• People should die with dignity rather than endure unbearable pain
• Personal autonomy means individuals should control their own death
• Medical resources could be used for patients who can recover
• Keeping someone alive against their wishes is cruel

Opponents argue:

• Sanctity of life principle means all life has value regardless of quality
• Vulnerable people might feel pressured to choose death
• Doctors' role is to preserve life (Hippocratic Oath)
• Palliative care can manage pain effectively
• Diagnosis could be wrong or treatment might be discovered

UK legal position:

Euthanasia and assisted suicide are illegal in the UK (Suicide Act 1961). Those who assist suicide can face up to 14 years imprisonment. Some British citizens have travelled to Dignitas in Switzerland where assisted suicide is legal.

Life after death: Religious beliefs

Christian beliefs about the afterlife:

Christians believe in:

• Resurrection of the body on Judgment Day
• Jesus's resurrection (1 Corinthians 15:20) provides evidence and hope
• Heaven — eternal life in God's presence for the saved
• Hell — eternal separation from God for the damned (though interpretations vary)
• Purgatory (Catholic teaching) — temporary state of purification before heaven
• Judgment by God based on faith and deeds
• Eternal soul that survives bodily death
• Different denominations emphasize faith (Protestants) or faith plus works (Catholics)

Biblical evidence:

• John 11:25-26: "I am the resurrection and the life"
• Revelation 21:4: description of heaven where God "will wipe every tear from their eyes"
• Matthew 25:31-46: parable of sheep and goats describing final judgment

Buddhist beliefs:

Buddhism teaches:

• Reincarnation (rebirth) — consciousness moves to new body after death
• No permanent soul (anatta), but karma determines rebirth
• Six realms of existence: gods, demi-gods, humans, animals, hungry ghosts, hell beings
• Quality of rebirth depends on karma accumulated in previous lives
• Samsara — the continuous cycle of birth, death and rebirth
• Nirvana — ultimate goal of escaping samsara by extinguishing craving and achieving enlightenment
• No eternal heaven or hell, though temporary heavenly and hell realms exist

The impact of beliefs about death on behavior

How belief in afterlife affects Christian living:

• Moral behavior motivated by desire for heaven and fear of hell
• Service to others seen as serving God (Matthew 25:40)
• Forgiveness and repentance important for salvation
• Funeral rites emphasize hope of resurrection
• Less fear of death due to belief in eternal life
• Confidence from Jesus's promise: "In my Father's house are many rooms"

How belief in rebirth affects Buddhist living:

• Motivation to generate good karma through ethical actions
• Following Five Precepts to ensure favorable rebirth
• Meditation and mindfulness practiced to achieve enlightenment
• Compassion toward all beings (who may have been relatives in past lives)
• Detachment from material possessions
• Funeral rites focus on helping consciousness achieve good rebirth

Non-religious views:

Humanists and atheists believe:

• Death is the end of existence
• No afterlife, heaven, or rebirth
• This makes present life more precious
• Legacy lives on through impact on others and achievements
• Funerals celebrate life rather than mourn death
• Morality based on human welfare, not divine reward/punishment

Worked examples

Example 1: AO1 knowledge question

Question: Explain Christian teachings about euthanasia. [5 marks]

Model answer:

Christians generally oppose euthanasia because they believe in the sanctity of life — that life is sacred because it is given by God. They would refer to the commandment "You shall not murder" (Exodus 20:13) which suggests that deliberately ending life is wrong. Christians believe that only God has the authority to decide when life should end, not humans. The Roman Catholic Church teaches that euthanasia is always morally wrong, though it accepts withdrawing extraordinary treatment. However, some liberal Christians support euthanasia in extreme cases, arguing that Jesus's teaching to "love your neighbour" means we should show compassion by ending unbearable suffering.

Mark scheme notes:

• 5 marks requires detailed knowledge with religious terminology
• Reference to sanctity of life (key concept)
• Biblical/Church teaching cited
• Range of Christian views shown (Catholic and liberal)
• Clear explanation of reasoning behind beliefs

Example 2: AO2 evaluation question

Question: "Abortion should never be allowed." Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.) [15 marks]

Model answer structure:

Arguments in support (pro-life position):

Many Christians would agree with this statement because they believe life is sacred from conception. Roman Catholics teach that abortion is always murder because the embryo has a soul from conception. They would cite Psalm 139:13 which describes God forming people in the womb, suggesting the unborn child is a person. Even in difficult cases like rape or disability, they argue the unborn child is innocent and has a right to life. The child could be adopted rather than aborted.

Arguments against (pro-choice position):

However, others would disagree, arguing that abortion should be allowed in certain circumstances. Some Christians believe that in cases of rape, the woman's trauma outweighs the foetus's right to life, showing compassion which Jesus taught. If continuing pregnancy risks the mother's life, saving the existing person might be the lesser evil. Pro-choice supporters argue that until the foetus is viable (around 24 weeks), it is not yet a person with rights. They emphasize the woman's autonomy over her own body.

Evaluation and conclusion:

In my opinion, the statement is too absolute. While protecting life is important, there are situations where abortion might be the most compassionate option, such as when the mother's life is endangered. However, abortion should not be used casually as a form of contraception. The focus should be on preventing unwanted pregnancies while allowing abortion in exceptional circumstances.

Mark scheme notes:

• 15 marks requires detailed arguments from multiple perspectives
• AO2 focuses on evaluation and analysis
• Must include religious perspectives
• Clear conclusion with personal viewpoint
• Reasoned argument throughout, not just listing points

Example 3: Short AO1 question

Question: What is meant by 'quality of life'? [2 marks]

Model answer:

Quality of life refers to how fulfilling or satisfying someone's life is. It is often used in debates about euthanasia to assess whether life is worth living.

Mark scheme notes:

• 2 marks for clear definition
• Context/application earns second mark
• Technical accuracy required

Common mistakes and how to avoid them

• Confusing types of euthanasia — Learn the precise differences between voluntary, non-voluntary, active, passive and assisted suicide. Examiners penalize vague answers.

• Stating "all Christians believe..." without qualification — Christianity has diverse views. Use phrases like "Most Christians," "Roman Catholics teach," or "Liberal Christians believe" to show awareness of variety.

• Writing about personal opinions without religious justification in AO1 questions — AO1 questions test knowledge of religious teachings, not your personal views. Always link to scripture, doctrine, or religious authority.

• Failing to develop evaluation in AO2 questions — Don't just list arguments. Explain why the argument matters, give religious justification, and analyze its strengths or weaknesses.

• Mixing up resurrection and reincarnation — Resurrection (Christian) involves the same body being raised; reincarnation (Buddhist/Hindu) involves rebirth into a new body. These are fundamentally different concepts.

• Ignoring the command word — "Explain" requires reasoning and development; "Describe" needs detail but not explanation. Read questions carefully.

Exam technique for Philosophical and Ethical Themes: Life and Death Issues

• Know your command words: "Explain" (5 marks) requires developed points with religious reasoning. "Discuss" or evaluate questions (15 marks) require multiple perspectives, religious teachings, analysis and a conclusion.

• Structure evaluation answers: Use clear paragraphs for arguments supporting the statement, arguments against, and your conclusion. Include religious perspectives throughout, not isolated in one paragraph.

• Use SPaG marks wisely: 15-mark questions include 3 marks for spelling, punctuation and grammar. Write clearly, use religious terminology correctly, and check your work. Terms like "sanctity of life," "euthanasia," and "resurrection" must be spelled correctly.

• Plan evaluation answers: Spend 1-2 minutes jotting down arguments for both sides before writing. This ensures balanced coverage and prevents rambling or one-sided responses.

Quick revision summary

Life and death issues center on abortion, euthanasia and afterlife beliefs. Christians generally oppose abortion and euthanasia based on sanctity of life, though liberal Christians permit exceptions. Buddhists follow the First Precept but balance this with compassion. Christians believe in resurrection and judgment leading to heaven or hell; Buddhists believe in reincarnation determined by karma. These beliefs significantly impact moral decision-making and behavior. Understanding multiple perspectives and applying religious teachings to ethical dilemmas is essential for examination success.