Philosophical and Ethical Themes: The Existence of God

What you'll learn

This revision guide covers the key philosophical arguments concerning God's existence that are tested in WJEC GCSE Religious Studies. You will explore traditional arguments for believing in God, including the cosmological, teleological, and ontological arguments, alongside religious experiences and miracles. You will also study atheist and agnostic responses, and understand how to evaluate these arguments critically for examination success.

Key terms and definitions

Theism — The belief that God exists, typically involving belief in one God who is omnipotent, omniscient, and omnibenevolent.

Atheism — The belief that God does not exist, often based on lack of evidence or the problem of suffering.

Agnosticism — The position that it is impossible to know whether God exists or not; agnostics neither believe nor disbelieve.

Cosmological argument — An argument for God's existence based on the idea that everything must have a cause, and God is the First Cause or Uncaused Cause.

Teleological argument — An argument for God's existence based on design and purpose in the universe; also called the design argument.

Ontological argument — An argument for God's existence based on logic and the definition of God as a perfect being.

Religious experience — A subjective encounter with God or the divine that people interpret as evidence for God's existence.

Miracle — An event that appears to break the laws of nature and is attributed to God's intervention.

Core concepts

The cosmological argument (First Cause argument)

The cosmological argument attempts to prove God's existence by examining cause and effect in the universe.

Key principles:

• Everything that exists must have a cause
• The universe exists, therefore it must have a cause
• There cannot be an infinite chain of causes going backwards forever
• There must be a First Cause that itself is uncaused
• This First Cause is God

Thomas Aquinas developed this argument in his "Five Ways," particularly the First and Second Ways. Aquinas observed that nothing can cause itself to exist, so there must be something that started the chain of causes.

Religious perspectives:

• Christians use this argument to support belief in God as Creator described in Genesis
• Muslims refer to Allah as the "First and the Last" (Qur'an 57:3), supporting the idea of God as the ultimate cause
• The argument aligns with the idea of God as eternal and self-sustaining

Strengths:

• Based on observable scientific principles of cause and effect
• Explains why there is something rather than nothing
• Logically coherent and follows rational steps

Weaknesses:

• Why must the chain of causes end? Why can't it be infinite?
• Even if there was a First Cause, why must it be God? It could be something else (like the Big Bang)
• Why can't the universe itself be eternal and uncaused?
• If everything needs a cause, what caused God? If God doesn't need a cause, why does the universe?

The teleological argument (Design argument)

The teleological argument suggests that the order, complexity, and purpose evident in the universe indicate an intelligent designer — God.

William Paley's watch analogy:

• If you found a watch on a heath, you would assume it had a designer because of its complexity and purpose
• The universe is far more complex than a watch
• Therefore, the universe must have had a designer
• This designer is God

Evidence of design:

• The precise conditions needed for life on Earth (goldilocks zone, atmospheric composition, water)
• The complexity of DNA and living organisms
• The apparent fine-tuning of physical constants in the universe
• The beauty and order in nature

Religious perspectives:

• Christians point to Genesis 1 where God creates with order and purpose
• Psalm 19:1 states "The heavens declare the glory of God"
• Many religious believers see nature as reflecting God's creative intelligence

Strengths:

• The universe does appear designed with purpose
• Scientific discoveries about DNA and cellular complexity suggest intelligent design
• Explains why natural laws are so precise and life-permitting

Weaknesses:

• Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection explains apparent design through natural processes without needing a designer
• The universe contains many examples of poor design (natural disasters, diseases, extinction)
• David Hume argued that even if there is design, it doesn't prove the designer is the God of classical theism (could be multiple designers, an imperfect designer, etc.)
• Random chance over billions of years could produce order without a designer

The ontological argument

The ontological argument is unique because it attempts to prove God's existence through logic and definition alone, without reference to the physical world.

St Anselm's argument:

• God is defined as "that than which nothing greater can be conceived"
• Something that exists in reality is greater than something that exists only in the mind
• Therefore, if God is the greatest conceivable being, God must exist in reality
• If God only existed in the mind, we could conceive of something greater (a God that exists in reality)
• Therefore, God must exist

Religious perspectives:

• Appeals to believers who see God as necessarily perfect and existing
• Supports the idea of God as the ultimate, supreme being
• Used by theologians to reinforce faith through rational argument

Strengths:

• Based purely on logic, not requiring empirical evidence
• If accepted, proves God's existence necessarily and absolutely
• Sophisticated philosophical reasoning

Weaknesses:

• Gaunilo responded with the "Perfect Island" objection: using the same logic, you could prove a perfect island must exist, which is absurd
• Immanuel Kant argued that existence is not a property or predicate that makes something greater; you cannot define something into existence
• The argument only works if you accept the initial definition of God
• Critics say it's a word game rather than proof of actual existence

Religious experience as evidence for God

A religious experience is a subjective, personal encounter that people interpret as contact with God or the divine.

Types of religious experience:

Numinous experiences:

• An overwhelming sense of awe and the presence of something greater than oneself
• Rudolf Otto described this as feeling mysterium tremendum (fearful mystery) and mysterium fascinans (fascinating mystery)
• Examples: Moses at the burning bush (Exodus 3), Isaiah's vision in the temple (Isaiah 6)

Conversion experiences:

• A dramatic change in beliefs and lifestyle
• Example: St Paul's conversion on the Damascus Road (Acts 9)
• Can be sudden or gradual

Mystical experiences:

• Direct, personal union with God
• Often described as ineffable (beyond words)
• Sense of oneness with the divine

Prayer experiences:

• Feeling God's presence during prayer
• Answered prayers suggesting God's involvement

Arguments for religious experience as evidence:

• Millions of people worldwide report such experiences across different cultures and religions
• Many experiences produce positive, life-changing effects
• The consistent nature of experiences suggests a common source (God)
• William James studied religious experiences and found common patterns, suggesting authenticity

Arguments against religious experience as evidence:

• Experiences are subjective and cannot be verified by others
• Could be psychological phenomena (wishful thinking, hallucinations, brain chemistry)
• Different religions report different experiences, suggesting cultural conditioning rather than divine contact
• Drugs and mental illness can produce similar experiences
• People interpret ambiguous experiences according to their existing beliefs

Miracles as evidence for God

A miracle is an extraordinary event that appears to violate natural laws and is attributed to divine intervention.

Examples of miracles:

• Jesus walking on water (Matthew 14:22-33)
• The resurrection of Jesus (central to Christian faith)
• The parting of the Red Sea (Exodus 14)
• Modern claims at Lourdes (healing miracles)

Arguments for miracles as evidence:

• If genuine, miracles prove God's existence and intervention in the world
• Multiple witnesses report many Biblical miracles
• Miracles often have religious purpose (demonstrating God's power, answering prayer)
• Some miracles have been investigated and cannot be explained naturally
• Aquinas argued miracles are God revealing divine power

Arguments against miracles as evidence:

• David Hume argued that miracles violate natural laws, which are based on uniform human experience. It is always more likely that the testimony is mistaken than that a natural law has been broken
• Miracles are often reported in pre-scientific ages or cultures; modern miracles are rare and disputed
• Natural explanations may exist but remain undiscovered
• Different religions report different miracles, suggesting human invention rather than divine action
• Miracle claims cannot be tested scientifically

Atheist and agnostic perspectives

Atheist arguments against God's existence:

Lack of evidence:

• No empirical, scientific evidence for God
• The burden of proof lies with believers
• Arguments for God (cosmological, teleological, etc.) are flawed

Scientific explanations:

• The Big Bang theory explains the universe's origin without God
• Evolution explains apparent design without a designer
• Neuroscience explains religious experiences as brain activity

The problem of evil and suffering:

• If God is omnipotent, omniscient, and omnibenevolent, why does suffering exist?
• Natural evil (earthquakes, diseases) seems incompatible with a loving God
• Human suffering appears random and excessive

Inconsistent revelations:

• Different religions make contradictory claims about God
• If God wanted belief, God would make existence clearer

Agnostic arguments:

• God's existence cannot be proven or disproven
• Humans lack the capacity to know if God exists
• Both belief and disbelief require a leap beyond evidence
• Some agnostics are open to evidence but find current arguments unconvincing

Religious responses to atheism and agnosticism:

• Faith goes beyond proof; God is experienced personally, not proven scientifically
• Free will explains some suffering; humans cause much evil
• God's ways are beyond human understanding
• Religious experiences provide personal evidence even without scientific proof
• Science and religion answer different questions (how vs. why)

Worked examples

Example 1: 2-mark question

Question: Give two reasons why some people believe in God. [2 marks]

Model answer: One reason is religious experience — people have personal experiences they interpret as encountering God, such as feeling God's presence during prayer. [1 mark]

Another reason is the design of the universe — the complexity and order in nature suggests an intelligent designer, which believers identify as God. [1 mark]

Examiner note: For 2-mark questions, provide two distinct reasons with brief explanation. One mark per valid reason.

Example 2: 5-mark question

Question: Explain Christian teachings about the cosmological argument for God's existence. [5 marks]

Model answer: The cosmological argument is based on the idea that everything must have a cause. Christians use this argument to support belief in God as the First Cause or Uncaused Cause of the universe. [1 mark]

Thomas Aquinas developed this argument in his "Five Ways," arguing that nothing can cause itself to exist, so there must be something that started the chain of causes. [1 mark]

Christians believe this First Cause is God, who is eternal and self-sustaining, as described in Genesis where God creates the universe. [1 mark]

The argument supports the Christian teaching that God is the Creator who brought everything into existence from nothing. [1 mark]

Christians would argue that the existence of the universe requires an explanation, and God provides that ultimate explanation as the necessary being who depends on nothing else. [1 mark]

Examiner note: AO1 questions require knowledge and understanding. Include key terms, religious teachings, and specific examples. Aim for approximately one mark per well-developed point.

Example 3: 15-mark evaluation question

Question: "The teleological argument proves that God exists." Discuss this statement showing that you have considered more than one point of view. (You must refer to religion and belief in your answer.) [15 marks]

Model answer structure:

Arguments supporting the statement: The teleological argument, or design argument, suggests that the order and complexity in the universe point to an intelligent designer. William Paley's watch analogy demonstrates that just as a watch's complexity implies a watchmaker, the universe's complexity implies God as designer. [AO2 developed argument]

Christians point to the precise conditions necessary for life on Earth, such as the exact distance from the sun and the composition of the atmosphere, as evidence of God's purposeful design. This aligns with Genesis 1, where God creates systematically and declares creation "good." [AO1 religious teaching]

The complexity of DNA and living cells, with their intricate systems, seems to many religious believers to be beyond chance and to require an intelligent creator. This provides evidence that God exists as the designer of life. [AO2 developed argument]

Arguments against the statement: However, atheists argue that Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection explains apparent design through natural processes without requiring a designer. Random mutation and natural selection can produce complexity over billions of years without God's involvement. [AO2 counter-argument]

David Hume criticized the design argument by pointing out that even if the universe is designed, this doesn't prove the designer is God. It could be multiple designers, an imperfect designer, or a designer very different from the God of classical theism. [AO2 developed counter-argument]

Furthermore, the universe contains much that seems poorly designed, such as natural disasters, diseases, and mass extinctions. These suggest either no designer or an imperfect one, contradicting the idea of an omnipotent, omnibenevolent God. [AO2 developed counter-argument]

Conclusion: While the teleological argument provides persuasive evidence for believers, particularly when combined with faith and religious experience, it does not conclusively prove God exists in a way that would convince atheists. The argument supports belief but requires interpretation and faith to lead to the God of classical theism rather than merely a designer. [AO2 evaluation]

Examiner note: For 15-mark questions, present balanced arguments (AO2) including religious perspectives (AO1). Use connectives ("however," "furthermore"), evaluate evidence, and reach a supported conclusion. Top marks require sophisticated reasoning and thorough religious understanding.

Common mistakes and how to avoid them

• Confusing the arguments: Students often mix up cosmological (cause), teleological (design), and ontological (definition/logic) arguments. Learn each argument's specific focus and key thinker associated with it (Aquinas/cosmological, Paley/teleological, Anselm/ontological).

• Weak evaluation: Simply stating "some people agree and some disagree" without explaining why. Always develop your evaluation with reasons, evidence, and religious perspectives. Use philosophers' names and specific objections.

• Ignoring religious teachings: WJEC requires you to include religious perspectives, not just philosophy. Connect arguments to Biblical passages, Christian/Islamic teachings, and religious responses to criticism.

• One-sided answers on evaluation questions: For 15-mark questions, you must present more than one viewpoint. Structure answers with arguments for, arguments against, and a reasoned conclusion.

• Asserting opinions as facts: Avoid "The cosmological argument is wrong" — instead write "Atheists argue that the cosmological argument is flawed because..." Support all claims with reasoning.

• Lack of specific examples: Instead of "miracles prove God exists," write "Christians believe Jesus's resurrection, witnessed by multiple disciples (1 Corinthians 15), demonstrates God's power over death."

Exam technique for "Philosophical and Ethical Themes: The Existence of God"

• Know your command words: "Give" (2 marks) = simple statement; "Explain" (5 marks) = show understanding with detail and religious teaching; "Discuss" (15 marks) = present balanced arguments with evaluation and reach a supported conclusion.

• Use specialist terminology accurately: Include key terms like theism, atheism, agnosticism, omnipotent, omniscient, omnibenevolent, First Cause, and specific philosophers' names. This demonstrates higher-level understanding and gains marks.

• Structure 15-mark answers clearly: Use paragraphs to separate different arguments. Present 2-3 developed arguments supporting the statement, 2-3 developed counter-arguments, then a conclusion that weighs the evidence. Include religious teachings throughout (AO1) while evaluating arguments (AO2).

• Reference religious texts and teachings: Quote or reference Bible passages, Christian denominations' views, or Islamic teachings where relevant. WJEC requires religious content — philosophical arguments alone are insufficient for top marks.

Quick revision summary

The cosmological argument claims God is the First Cause; the teleological argument sees God as designer of the universe's complexity; the ontological argument uses logic to prove God's existence from God's definition. Religious experiences and miracles provide personal evidence for believers. Atheists reject these arguments due to lack of empirical evidence, scientific explanations, and the problem of suffering. Agnostics claim God's existence cannot be known. Successful exam answers require balanced evaluation, specific examples, philosopher names, and integration of religious teachings with philosophical reasoning.