What you'll learn
This topic examines the transformation of the United States across seven decades, from economic collapse in 1929 through to global superpower status by 2000. You'll explore Roosevelt's response to the Great Depression, America's role in the Cold War, the struggle for civil rights, and social-political changes from the 1960s onwards. Understanding causation, consequence and change over time is essential for WJEC exam success.
Key terms and definitions
The New Deal — Roosevelt's programme of government intervention (1933-1938) designed to provide Relief, Recovery and Reform during the Great Depression through alphabet agencies and federal spending.
McCarthyism — The period (1950-1954) of intense anti-communist suspicion led by Senator Joseph McCarthy, characterised by accusations, blacklisting and the persecution of alleged communists in American society.
Civil Rights Movement — The organised struggle (primarily 1950s-1960s) by African Americans and supporters to end racial segregation and discrimination, securing equal rights under the law.
Segregation — The enforced separation of different racial groups in public facilities, education, transport and housing, particularly in the southern states under Jim Crow laws.
Détente — The easing of Cold War tensions between the USA and USSR during the 1970s, involving arms limitation treaties, trade agreements and diplomatic dialogue.
Great Society — President Lyndon B. Johnson's domestic programme (1964-1968) aimed at eliminating poverty and racial injustice through legislation on civil rights, healthcare, education and welfare.
Watergate Scandal — The 1972-1974 political scandal involving President Nixon's administration covering up a break-in at Democratic headquarters, ultimately leading to Nixon's resignation.
Reagan Revolution — The conservative political and economic shift under President Ronald Reagan (1981-1989), emphasising tax cuts, deregulation, strong defence spending and traditional values.
Core concepts
The Great Depression and the New Deal (1929-1941)
Causes and impact of the Great Depression
The Wall Street Crash of October 1929 triggered America's worst economic crisis. Share prices collapsed, wiping out investors' savings. Banks failed as depositors rushed to withdraw money, losing $2.5 billion in deposits. By 1933, unemployment reached 25% (approximately 13 million people), whilst industrial production fell by 45%.
Key consequences included:
- Mass unemployment and homelessness, with shanty towns ('Hoovervilles') appearing in major cities
- Agricultural collapse, worsened by the Dust Bowl in the Great Plains
- Soup kitchens and breadlines becoming commonplace
- President Hoover's limited intervention proving ineffective
Roosevelt's New Deal programmes
Franklin D. Roosevelt won the 1932 election promising a 'New Deal' for Americans. His first 100 days saw rapid legislation:
First New Deal (1933-1934):
- Emergency Banking Act restored confidence in banks through federal inspection
- Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) employed young men in conservation projects
- Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) paid farmers to reduce production, raising prices
- National Recovery Administration (NRA) established fair wages and working conditions
- Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) brought electricity and jobs to a depressed region
Second New Deal (1935-1938):
- Works Progress Administration (WPA) employed 8.5 million in public works
- Social Security Act provided pensions for elderly and unemployment insurance
- National Labor Relations Act protected trade union rights
- Fair Labor Standards Act set minimum wages and maximum working hours
Opposition and limitations
The New Deal faced significant criticism:
- Supreme Court declared NRA and AAA unconstitutional (1935-1936)
- Republicans attacked increased government spending and 'socialist' policies
- Business leaders opposed trade union powers and regulations
- African Americans and women benefited less than white men
- Economic recovery remained incomplete until World War Two rearmament
The USA and the Cold War (1945-1991)
Origins and Truman's containment policy
Post-1945 tensions with the USSR led to the Cold War — an ideological and geopolitical struggle between capitalism and communism. President Truman adopted 'containment' to prevent communist expansion:
- Truman Doctrine (1947) pledged support for nations resisting communism
- Marshall Plan (1948) provided $13 billion to rebuild Western Europe
- NATO formed (1949) as a military alliance against Soviet threat
- Korean War (1950-1953) demonstrated commitment to containment in Asia
McCarthyism and the Red Scare
Fear of communist infiltration intensified domestically:
- House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) investigated suspected communists
- Hollywood blacklists destroyed careers of screenwriters and actors
- Julius and Ethel Rosenberg executed (1953) for atomic espionage
- Senator McCarthy's accusations created hysteria until his censure (1954)
Vietnam War and its impact
America's longest war (1965-1973) deeply divided the nation:
- Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964) gave Johnson authority to escalate involvement
- 500,000 US troops deployed by 1968 but struggled against guerrilla tactics
- My Lai Massacre (1968) shocked Americans when exposed
- Anti-war protests intensified, especially among students
- Withdrawal completed 1973; Saigon fell to communists 1975
- 58,000 Americans killed, undermining confidence in government
Détente and Reagan's approach
The 1970s saw improved superpower relations:
- Nixon visited China (1972) and Moscow, signing SALT I arms limitation treaty
- Trade agreements expanded economic cooperation
- Helsinki Accords (1975) recognised European borders and human rights
Reagan reversed détente with aggressive anti-Soviet policies (1981-1989):
- Massive defence spending, including Strategic Defense Initiative ('Star Wars')
- Support for anti-communist forces in Afghanistan, Nicaragua and Angola
- However, negotiations with Gorbachev led to INF Treaty (1987) removing intermediate-range missiles
- Cold War effectively ended 1989-1991 with Soviet collapse
The Civil Rights Movement (1950s-1960s)
Segregation in the South
Jim Crow laws enforced racial separation:
- Separate schools, transport, restaurants, hospitals and public facilities
- Voting restricted through literacy tests, poll taxes and intimidation
- Economic discrimination limited African American employment opportunities
- Violence and lynching used to maintain white supremacy
Key campaigns and events
Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Supreme Court ruled school segregation unconstitutional, though implementation faced massive resistance.
Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956): Rosa Parks' arrest sparked 381-day boycott led by Martin Luther King Jr., successfully ending bus segregation.
Little Rock, Arkansas (1957): President Eisenhower sent federal troops to enforce integration of Central High School against Governor Faubus's resistance.
Sit-ins and Freedom Rides (1960-1961): Students conducted peaceful protests at segregated lunch counters; Freedom Riders challenged segregated interstate transport, facing violent attacks.
Birmingham Campaign (1963): King's protests met with police dogs and fire hoses, shocking television audiences and building support for federal action.
March on Washington (1963): 250,000 gathered; King delivered 'I Have a Dream' speech, pressuring Congress for civil rights legislation.
Selma to Montgomery marches (1965): 'Bloody Sunday' violence against peaceful marchers accelerated Voting Rights Act passage.
Legislative achievements and limitations
Major laws secured equality:
- Civil Rights Act (1964) outlawed discrimination in public accommodations and employment
- Voting Rights Act (1965) ended discriminatory voting practices
- Fair Housing Act (1968) prohibited housing discrimination
However:
- De facto segregation persisted in northern cities
- Economic inequality remained severe
- Urban riots (Watts 1965, Detroit 1967) revealed frustration
- King's assassination (1968) devastated the movement
- Black Power movement rejected non-violence, dividing activists
Political and social changes (1960s-2000)
Johnson's Great Society
Building on Kennedy's legacy, Johnson pursued ambitious reforms:
- Medicare and Medicaid provided healthcare for elderly and poor
- Elementary and Secondary Education Act increased federal education funding
- Head Start offered pre-school education for disadvantaged children
- Immigration Act (1965) ended discriminatory quotas
- However, Vietnam War costs undermined domestic programmes
Nixon and Watergate
Nixon's presidency (1969-1974) ended in disgrace:
- June 1972: Burglars caught at Democratic National Committee headquarters
- Nixon denied involvement but secretly recorded conversations proved complicity
- Congress initiated impeachment proceedings
- August 1974: Nixon resigned, first president to do so
- Watergate increased public cynicism about politics
Reagan and conservatism
The 1980s saw a conservative resurgence:
- 'Reaganomics' cut taxes for wealthy, claiming benefits would 'trickle down'
- Deregulation reduced government oversight of business
- Social welfare spending reduced
- Traditional family values promoted
- National debt tripled, inequality increased
Clinton and the 1990s
Bill Clinton (1993-2001) represented centrist Democrats:
- Economic growth and budget surpluses achieved
- Welfare reform required recipients to seek work
- NAFTA created free trade zone with Canada and Mexico
- Healthcare reform failed
- Impeached (1998) over Monica Lewinsky scandal but acquitted
Worked examples
Example 1: Explain why Roosevelt introduced the New Deal. [6 marks]
Model answer: Roosevelt introduced the New Deal because the Great Depression had devastated the American economy and Hoover's policies had failed. By 1933, unemployment reached 25% with 13 million jobless, banks were collapsing, and industrial production had fallen by 45%. Roosevelt believed the federal government must intervene directly to provide relief for the suffering, recovery for the economy, and reform to prevent future crises. His election victory gave him a mandate for radical action. The New Deal programmes like the CCC and WPA aimed to create jobs through public works, whilst the Social Security Act established a welfare safety net. Roosevelt's approach represented a fundamental shift from limited government intervention to active federal responsibility for citizens' welfare.
Examiner comment: This answer demonstrates causation by identifying multiple factors (economic crisis, Hoover's failure, Roosevelt's beliefs, electoral mandate). It includes specific evidence (statistics, named programmes) and explains the connection between causes and consequences. Would achieve full marks.
Example 2: Describe the methods used by civil rights campaigners in the 1960s. [5 marks]
Model answer: Civil rights campaigners used peaceful direct action methods. Sit-ins involved students occupying segregated lunch counters until arrested or served, as seen in Greensboro, North Carolina (1960). Freedom Rides challenged segregated interstate transport, with mixed-race groups travelling through the South despite violent attacks. Mass marches demonstrated public support, such as the 1963 March on Washington where 250,000 gathered to hear King's 'I Have a Dream' speech. Voter registration drives helped African Americans overcome discriminatory barriers to voting. These non-violent methods aimed to expose injustice, gain media attention and pressure the federal government to act.
Examiner comment: Clear description of multiple methods with specific examples. Each method is explained rather than simply listed. Would achieve full marks for accurate, relevant content.
Example 3: How far was the New Deal successful in solving America's problems in the 1930s? [10 marks + 3 SPaG]
Model answer: The New Deal had significant successes but also important limitations in addressing Depression-era problems.
The New Deal successfully provided immediate relief to millions of suffering Americans. The CCC employed 2.5 million young men in conservation work, whilst the WPA created 8.5 million jobs building schools, hospitals and roads. The Social Security Act established pensions and unemployment insurance, creating America's first welfare system. Banking reforms restored confidence, with the FDIC protecting deposits. The TVA transformed a depressed region with electricity, flood control and employment. These alphabet agencies demonstrated government could actively help citizens.
However, the New Deal had significant limitations. Unemployment remained high throughout the 1930s, only falling below 10% during World War Two rearmament. The Supreme Court struck down key programmes like the NRA and original AAA as unconstitutional. African Americans and women benefited less than white men from work programmes. Some historians argue the New Deal created dependency on government and expanded federal power excessively. Business leaders opposed increased regulation and trade union rights.
Overall, the New Deal was partially successful. It prevented complete economic collapse, restored hope and established the principle that government has responsibility for citizens' welfare. However, it did not achieve full economic recovery or help all Americans equally. Its greatest success was changing expectations of government's role in American life.
Examiner comment: This balanced answer considers both success and limitations with specific evidence. Clear structure with introduction, two developed paragraphs and evaluative conclusion. Sustained argument addressing 'how far'. Would achieve Level 4 (9-10 marks) plus full SPaG marks for accurate writing.
Common mistakes and how to avoid them
Confusing chronology — Students often muddle the order of events, particularly New Deal programmes or Cold War developments. Create a timeline with key dates to maintain clarity about what happened when.
Generalising about 'Americans' — The USA was deeply divided by region, race, class and politics. Specify which groups you mean (e.g., 'southern white Democrats opposed integration' not 'Americans opposed integration').
Narrative without analysis — Simply telling the story earns limited marks. Always explain causes, consequences and significance using connecting phrases like 'This led to...', 'As a result...', 'This was significant because...'.
Ignoring limitations — When evaluating success (e.g., New Deal, Civil Rights Movement), weaker answers only mention achievements. Strong answers balance successes against limitations and failures.
Vague evidence — Avoid phrases like 'many people' or 'lots of programmes'. Use specific statistics, names, dates and legislation to demonstrate detailed knowledge.
Presentism — Don't judge historical figures by modern standards. Understand their actions in historical context (e.g., 1930s attitudes to government intervention differed from today).
Exam technique for "The Development of the USA, 1929–2000"
Command words matter — 'Describe' requires factual detail without explanation. 'Explain why' needs causes with reasoning. 'How far/to what extent' demands evaluation with a judgement. Read the question twice before starting.
Use the mark scheme to guide length — A 4-mark question needs two developed points or four brief points. A 10-mark essay requires introduction, multiple paragraphs with evidence, and conclusion. Roughly one mark per minute.
PEE paragraphs for explanation questions — Make a Point, provide Evidence (specific facts, statistics, names), then Explain the significance or link to the question. This structure ensures analytical depth.
Balance and judgement for evaluation questions — Present arguments for and against, use specific evidence for each, then reach a justified conclusion. Avoid sitting on the fence—take a position whilst acknowledging alternative views.
Quick revision summary
The USA transformed dramatically 1929-2000. The Great Depression prompted Roosevelt's New Deal, expanding federal government responsibility through relief, recovery and reform programmes. Post-1945, America led the Western world through the Cold War, containing communism through military alliances, economic aid and sometimes military intervention. Domestically, the Civil Rights Movement challenged segregation through peaceful protest, achieving landmark legislation by 1965 but facing ongoing inequality. Political scandals (Watergate), conservative resurgence (Reagan) and economic globalisation (Clinton) marked later decades. Understanding causation, consequence and change over time enables examination success on this transformative period.