Weimar and Nazi Germany, 1919–1945

What you'll learn

This revision guide covers the period from Germany's defeat in WWI through the Weimar Republic's struggles, Hitler's rise to power, and Nazi control until 1945. You'll understand the political, economic and social factors that led to Nazi dictatorship, and how Hitler maintained power through propaganda, terror and economic policies.

Key terms and definitions

Treaty of Versailles — The 1919 peace settlement that forced Germany to accept blame for WWI, pay £6.6 billion in reparations, lose territory, and limit its armed forces to 100,000 men.

Hyperinflation — The economic crisis of 1923 when German currency became worthless; prices rose so rapidly that workers needed wheelbarrows to carry wages, and savings became valueless overnight.

Enabling Act — The March 1933 law that allowed Hitler to pass laws without the Reichstag's approval for four years, effectively ending democracy and establishing his dictatorship.

Kristallnacht — "Night of Broken Glass" (9-10 November 1938) when Nazi stormtroopers destroyed Jewish businesses, synagogues and homes, marking a turning point toward systematic genocide.

Gleichschaltung — The Nazi policy of "coordination" or "bringing into line" that forced all aspects of German society (education, youth groups, trade unions) under Nazi control.

Lebensraum — Hitler's policy of gaining "living space" for the German people by expanding eastward into Poland and the Soviet Union.

Gestapo — The Nazi secret police force that arrested and interrogated suspected opponents, using torture and detention without trial to create fear.

Autarky — Economic self-sufficiency; the Nazi aim to make Germany independent of foreign imports through domestic production and synthetic materials.

Core concepts

The Weimar Republic's early problems (1919-1923)

The Weimar Republic faced immediate crises that undermined public confidence from its birth.

Political weaknesses:

• Germans called Weimar politicians the "November Criminals" for signing the armistice and Treaty of Versailles
• Article 48 allowed the President to rule by decree in emergencies, threatening democracy
• Proportional representation created coalition governments that struggled to agree on policies
• The new constitution had no experience of democracy; many Germans preferred strong authoritarian leadership

Economic chaos:

• War debts totalled 150 billion marks
• Industrial production fell to 40% of 1913 levels
• The government printed money to pay striking workers in the Ruhr (occupied by France and Belgium in 1923 for missed reparation payments)
• By November 1923, one US dollar equalled 4.2 trillion marks
• Middle-class savings were wiped out, creating lasting resentment

Political violence:

• The Spartacist Uprising (January 1919) saw communist revolutionaries attempt to seize Berlin; crushed by Freikorps units
• The Kapp Putsch (March 1920) involved right-wing Freikorps attempting to overthrow the government; defeated by workers' general strike
• Political assassinations included Matthias Erzberger (1921) and Walter Rathenau (1922)

The "Golden Years" of Weimar (1924-1929)

Gustav Stresemann's policies as Chancellor and Foreign Minister brought stability.

Economic recovery:

• Introduced the Rentenmark (November 1923), then the Reichsmark, ending hyperinflation
• The Dawes Plan (1924) restructured reparations payments and secured US loans of 800 million marks
• The Young Plan (1929) reduced total reparations from £6.6 billion to £2 billion and extended payment period to 59 years
• Industrial production recovered to 1913 levels by 1928
• Wages for industrial workers rose above pre-war levels

Political stability:

• No attempted revolutions between 1924-1929
• Extremist parties (Nazi and Communist) gained fewer votes
• However, coalitions remained fragile; Germany had six different chancellors 1924-1929

Cultural achievements:

• Berlin became Europe's cultural capital
• The Bauhaus movement revolutionised architecture and design
• Marlene Dietrich and Bertolt Brecht gained international fame
• However, conservatives viewed Weimar culture as decadent and un-German

Hitler's rise to power (1929-1933)

The Wall Street Crash transformed German politics by destroying economic stability.

Impact of the Depression:

• US loans were recalled; German businesses collapsed
• Unemployment rose from 1.4 million (1928) to 6 million (1932)
• Middle classes feared communism as unemployment bred desperation
• Young people saw no future in democratic politics

Nazi electoral breakthrough:

Year	Nazi Reichstag seats
1928	12
July 1932	230
Nov 1932	196
March 1933	288

Why did support for the Nazis grow?

• Hitler's speeches blamed Weimar politicians, the Treaty of Versailles, and Jews for Germany's problems
• The SA (stormtroopers) projected strength and order while attacking communists
• Propaganda chief Joseph Goebbels used posters, rallies and films effectively
• Promises appealed to different groups: jobs for workers, profits for businessmen, restoration of German pride for nationalists
• Hitler presented himself as Germany's saviour, flying by plane to speak at multiple rallies daily

How Hitler became Chancellor:

• President Hindenburg initially refused to appoint "that Bohemian corporal"
• Politicians Franz von Papen and Kurt von Schleicher advised Hindenburg they could control Hitler in a coalition
• 30 January 1933: Hitler appointed Chancellor with only three Nazis in the cabinet
• This proved a fatal miscalculation

Establishing dictatorship (1933-1934)

Hitler moved quickly to consolidate total power.

The Reichstag Fire (27 February 1933):

• Communist Marinus van der Lubbe found inside the burning building
• Hitler persuaded Hindenburg to sign the Decree for the Protection of People and State, suspending civil liberties
• 4,000 communists arrested overnight

March 1933 election:

• Despite SA intimidation, Nazis won only 44% of votes
• Hitler needed the Enabling Act to rule by decree

The Enabling Act (23 March 1933):

• Required a two-thirds majority
• Catholic Centre Party voted for it after Hitler promised to protect the Church
• Only Social Democrats voted against
• Democracy was legally ended

Eliminating opposition:

• May 1933: trade unions banned, replaced by the German Labour Front (DAF)
• July 1933: all political parties except Nazis banned
• State governments dissolved; Nazi governors (Gauleiters) appointed
• Civil servants had to be Nazi Party members

The Night of the Long Knives (30 June 1934):

• Hitler ordered the SS to murder SA leader Ernst Röhm and around 400 others
• The army had viewed the 2-million-strong SA as a threat
• By removing the SA, Hitler secured army loyalty
• When Hindenburg died (August 1934), Hitler combined the roles of Chancellor and President, becoming Führer
• The army swore a personal oath of loyalty to Hitler

The Nazi police state

Hitler's regime maintained power through fear and surveillance.

The SS (Schutzstaffel):

• Led by Heinrich Himmler
• Controlled all police and security forces
• Ran concentration camps for political prisoners
• Viewed as racially pure elite

The Gestapo:

• Could arrest and imprison without trial
• Used torture during interrogation
• Relied on ordinary Germans informing on neighbours
• Created an atmosphere of fear and suspicion

Concentration camps:

• First opened at Dachau (March 1933)
• Held political opponents, homosexuals, Jehovah's Witnesses, "asocials"
• Used forced labour
• Death camps for systematic genocide came later (1942 onwards)

The Legal System:

• Judges had to favour the Nazi Party
• The People's Court tried cases of treason with no appeal
• Number of crimes punishable by death increased from 3 to 46

Propaganda under Goebbels:

• Ministry of Propaganda and Enlightenment controlled all media
• Cheap radios (Volksempfänger) in 70% of homes by 1939
• Newspapers censored; editors had to be Aryan
• Rallies at Nuremberg created spectacle and unity
• Leni Riefenstahl's film "Triumph of the Will" glorified Hitler
• Anti-Semitic messages in films like "The Eternal Jew"

Nazi policies toward Jews

Nazi anti-Semitism escalated from discrimination to genocide.

Phase 1: Legal discrimination (1933-1938):

• April 1933: Boycott of Jewish shops
• Jews banned from civil service, teaching, journalism
• Nuremberg Laws (1935): Jews lost citizenship; marriage between Jews and Aryans forbidden
• Jews had to register property
• Jewish children excluded from schools

Phase 2: Violence and emigration (1938-1939):

• Kristallnacht: 91 Jews killed, 30,000 sent to concentration camps, 7,500 businesses destroyed
• Jews forced to pay for damage
• Emigration encouraged but property confiscated
• Many countries refused to accept Jewish refugees

Phase 3: The "Final Solution" (1942-1945):

• Wannsee Conference (January 1942) planned systematic murder
• Death camps at Auschwitz, Treblinka, Sobibor used gas chambers
• 6 million Jews murdered in the Holocaust
• Roma, disabled people, and others also targeted

Nazi economic and social policies

Hitler aimed to make Germany ready for war while winning popular support.

Reducing unemployment:

• National Labour Service (RAD): 6 months compulsory work for 18-25 year olds
• Autobahn construction employed 80,000
• Rearmament: conscription (1935) created jobs in arms factories
• Jews and women removed from employment statistics
• Unemployment fell from 6 million (1933) to 0.3 million (1939)

Autarky and rearmament:

• Four-Year Plan (1936) under Hermann Göring
• Synthetic rubber and oil production
• Germany never achieved self-sufficiency but reduced import dependence
• Military spending rose from 3.5 billion marks (1933) to 30 billion (1939)

Women and the family:

• "Kinder, Küche, Kirche" (children, kitchen, church) defined women's role
• Marriage loans of 1,000 marks if women left work
• Motherhood Cross awarded for large families (bronze for 4-5 children, gold for 8+)
• Lebensborn programme encouraged SS men to father children with Aryan women
• In practice, war required female labour; by 1939, more women worked than in 1933

Youth indoctrination:

• Hitler Youth (boys) and League of German Maidens (girls) membership became compulsory
• Activities included camping, sport, and Nazi ideology training
• Schools taught racial science and Nazi history
• Teachers joined the Nazi Teachers' League or lost jobs
• Curriculum emphasized physical fitness for boys, domestic skills for girls

Worked examples

Question 1 (6 marks): Explain why support for the Nazi Party increased between 1929 and 1932.

Mark scheme approach: Three explained points, 2 marks each (1 for identification, 1 for explanation/development).

Model answer:

One reason was the economic impact of the Wall Street Crash. When American loans were recalled, German businesses collapsed and unemployment reached 6 million by 1932. Many Germans blamed the Weimar politicians for this crisis and turned to Hitler, who promised "Work and Bread" and radical solutions.

Another reason was effective Nazi propaganda. Joseph Goebbels organised mass rallies and used posters to spread the Nazi message. Hitler travelled by plane to speak at multiple locations, presenting himself as Germany's saviour and projecting an image of energy and modernity that appealed to voters.

A third reason was fear of communism. The middle classes and business owners worried that desperate, unemployed workers might support a communist revolution like the one in Russia. They saw the Nazis, with their strong SA force fighting communists in street battles, as the best protection against this threat.

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Question 2 (8 marks): Describe the key features of the Nazi police state.

Mark scheme approach: Four developed points, 2 marks each.

Model answer:

One key feature was the SS, led by Heinrich Himmler. This organisation controlled all police forces and security services, and was responsible for running concentration camps where political opponents were imprisoned without trial.

Another feature was the Gestapo, the secret police force. They could arrest and interrogate suspects using torture, and relied on ordinary Germans informing on neighbours, which created an atmosphere of fear and suspicion throughout society.

A third feature was the use of concentration camps. The first camp opened at Dachau in March 1933, and these camps held political prisoners, homosexuals, Jehovah's Witnesses and others whom the Nazis considered undesirable. Prisoners faced harsh conditions and forced labour.

The legal system was also a key feature. Judges had to favour the Nazi Party, and the People's Court tried treason cases with no right of appeal. The number of crimes punishable by death increased from 3 to 46, showing how the law was used to control the population.

Common mistakes and how to avoid them

• Confusing chronology: Students mix up the 1923 hyperinflation crisis with the 1929 Depression. Remember: hyperinflation came first and was solved by Stresemann; the Depression began after the Wall Street Crash.

• Vague explanations: Don't write "Hitler gave speeches." Instead, specify what made them effective: "Hitler's speeches blamed specific scapegoats like Jews and Weimar politicians, offering simple explanations for complex problems."

• Ignoring the question focus: If asked about 1933-1934, don't spend paragraphs on the 1920s. Match your content precisely to the date range specified.

• Failing to explain how factors link to outcomes: Don't just describe the Treaty of Versailles. Explain how its terms created resentment that Hitler exploited: "The War Guilt Clause humiliated Germans, allowing Hitler to promise to restore national pride."

• Weak conclusions in 8+ mark questions: Always link back to the question. If asked why Hitler gained power, conclude: "Therefore, economic crisis, effective propaganda, and political miscalculation combined to bring Hitler to power."

• Overlooking women and youth: Nazi social policies are heavily tested. Learn specific programmes like the Motherhood Cross and Hitler Youth, not just general statements about "traditional roles."

Exam technique for "Weimar and Nazi Germany, 1919–1945"

• Master command words: "Describe" requires detailed features without explaining causes. "Explain why" needs reasons with developed explanations showing how each factor led to the outcome. "How far do you agree" requires a balanced argument evaluating different factors before reaching a judgement.

• Use the mark tariff to structure answers: For 6-mark questions, write three developed points (2 marks each). For 8-mark questions, write four developed points. For essays (10-16 marks), write 4-5 paragraphs with an introduction and conclusion.

• Deploy specific factual detail: Examiners reward precise facts, dates, statistics and names. "Unemployment rose to 6 million by 1932" scores higher than "unemployment increased lots."

• Link factors together: Top-level answers show how multiple causes interacted. For example: "The Depression created mass unemployment, which increased fear of communism, which led middle-class voters to support the Nazis as protection."

Quick revision summary

The Weimar Republic (1919-1933) struggled with the Treaty of Versailles, hyperinflation (1923), and limited democratic tradition before stabilising under Stresemann (1924-1929). The Wall Street Crash triggered the Depression, creating mass unemployment that Hitler exploited through propaganda and promises. As Chancellor from January 1933, Hitler used the Reichstag Fire and Enabling Act to establish dictatorship, eliminating opposition through the Night of the Long Knives (1934). The Nazi police state combined SS terror, Gestapo surveillance, and Goebbels' propaganda to maintain control. Nazi policies pursued autarky, rearmament, and racial ideology, escalating persecution of Jews from legal discrimination to the Holocaust's systematic genocide.